Hey, this is my essay I had to do for a college English course. I hope it helps people to beeter understand what the people surrounding Alexander were like. I have no where else to put this so I hope I don't get in too much trouble for this. Leave me comments, I trake criticism to. Hoep you enjoy.
Alexander the Great
In 356 B.C. the Macedonian state celebrated the birth of one of the most complex and controversial sovereigns the world would ever see. This man would become known as Alexander the Great, a man who would conquer most of the known world before he was 30 years old. However, Alexander did not become the man he was without the influence of others. The people most responsible for shaping the life of Alexander the Great were his family, companions, love interests, and enemies.
It is undeniable that Alexander truly lived up to his title. He was an extraordinary man who would not settle for less than what he wanted. Throughout the years there was a variety of terms to describe him: curious, cunning, ruthless, intelligent, caring, emotional, reasonable, egocentric, forgiving, understanding, and above all else, ambitious. These many sides of Alexander were most likely brought out because of the wide range of different people for which Alexander surrounded himself. However, many do not know about the people who surrounded Alexander.
Alexander's family life is one of deceit, treachery, and lies. His father, Philip, and his mother, Olympias, caused significant psychological and emotional damage to Alexander. His bi-polar tendencies and shocking actions are testament to this. His parents were constantly feuding and would pit Alexander against each other.
Philip suffered from a semi-traumatic childhood himself. As like most other children of his rank, he was forced to endure harsh military and political training. When he was young his father gave him to Thebes as a political hostage. Also throughout his life, in the years to come his family members were slowly picked off one by one. When his father Amyntas died, he left his three sons to rule the kingdom. His mother's lover, Ptolemy Alorites, killed the eldest son, Alexander II. The second son, Perdiccas III, avenged his brother's death by killing Ptolemy; however, he died shortly afterward in battle. This left a 24-year-old Philip in charge of the entire Macedonian Empire.
Philip soon showed the world he was a very proficient military leader, a cunning individual and pitiless politician. These are all traits he passed on to Alexander. However, he was also known frequently as a habitual drunkard and an avid womanizer. Nonetheless, he was an extraordinary commander-of-state. Macedon was originally weak, uncivilized, and in poverty. With little help from others, Philip turned Macedon into one of the most powerful nations in the world, all within twenty years.
It was in fact Philip who laid down the base plans for the invasion of Persia. There were several different reasons why Philip wanted to invade and conquer Persia. One, of course, was that he was a king and Macedonian warrior. Because of these two characteristics, he felt a desire to be in battle and to expand his empire. Also, Persia was the main threat to the Macedonian empire. Philip felt he had to attack them before the Persians could attack Macedon. Another reason was because Philip wanted revenge on the Persians for invading Macedonia and Greece a century before. The third reason was because of annoyance. Before Philip took over Greece, some Persians were known for aiding Philips enemies in Greece.
The relationship between Philip and Alexander was strained. This is probably due to Olympias, Alexander's mother. Philip, at times, would think Alexander was ill suited to be his heir while Alexander believed the problem was that Philip was jealous of Alexander. They would have their fights. In fact, one led Alexander to be exiled, but then they also had close father and son moments. One such moment was when a young Alexander tamed the stallion, Bucephalus. Philip stated, loudly, in front of a large audience, Alexander needed his own kingdom because Macedonia was too small for him. By saying this, Philip was also saying Alexander was fit to be a great ruler, far beyond what Philip himself would be. Unfortunately, this was when Alexander was a young boy.
As he matured, the two would begin to fight more. Alexander began to take on more of his mother's personality, and since Philip and Olympias did not get along, Philip did not think of Alexander as being worthy of grandeur. This is something that would stick with Alexander for the rest of his life. I believe, perhaps one reason as to why Alexander was so ambitious was because his father was constantly telling him he wasn't good enough. He needed to conquer everything and tackle every impossible feat to prove himself worthy.
The end of Philip's reign was close at hand; he was assassinated during the wedding games for his daughter, Cleopatra. One of his personal guards, Pausanias, felt Philip did him an injustice in the form of rape. Pausanias stabbed Philip in front of the large crowd that had gathered for the games and then fled to where he had two horses waiting. This led people to believe there was a second person in on the assassination but was never found. Macedonian guards killed Pausanias upon catching him and thus were unable to get any information from him. This left a twenty-year-old Alexander as king of Macedon and Greece.
Alexander's mother, Olympias, was an orphaned princess of the Molossian royal house in a bordering kingdom called Epirus. Her original name, before her marriage to Philip, was Myrtale. The two met when she was twelve years old at a festival held on her island. Many said it was love at first sight. Olympias was Philip's fifth of seven wives. They had no idea of the chaos their marriage would soon cause.
Olympias was a very outlandish woman for the Macedonians. She was very dedicated to the God of wine, Dionysus, and was also very much apart of the occult. Many believed she even slept with snakes in her bed. She was also a very prideful and obsessive woman. She never believed herself to be below anyone, even her husband. Olympias is especially known for her cruelty. She killed anyone who got in her way. It was even believed she helped in the murder of her husband.
One reason for this belief was because of her obvious contempt for Philip. The two were always at odds. Another reason was because of her reaction to Philip's murder, Pausanias. She placed a golden crown upon the corpse of Pausanias and then had his body burnt over Philip's remains. In addition, she also forced others to worship him and dedicated the dagger that killed Philip to the god Apollo in Pausanias' honor.
Another insight to Olympias' cruelty is with the death of Euridice. Euridice was Philip's last wife. After Phillip's death, Olympias did not want there to be any competition against Alexander for the throne. Also, she despised Euridice and always believed her to be a threat. Olympias was not a native Macedonian however; Euridice was fully Greek. Because of this, Euridice was more respected by the people and was thought to be a better queen than Olympias. In return, Olympias forced Euridice to watch her infant die a tortuous death and then forced the young mother to kill herself.
Olympias remained in Pella while Alexander conquered Persia. While there, Olympias caused many problems for Alexander's regent Antipater. The two fought almost as much as Olympias and Philip. They would frequently send letters to Alexander discrediting the other. This in turn greatly frustrated Alexander who was hundreds of miles away. It was told he even said his mother charged him a high price for the nine months he was lodged in her womb. The two remained in contact until Alexander's death. A few years later, Cassander, a companion of Alexander, killed Olympias. It was said she went to her death stubborn as ever with her head held high.
Olympias and Alexander shared a very complicated yet deep bond with each other. Alexander was closer to his mother than his father and adopted more traits from her than from Philip. They could both be rather violent, stubborn, obsessive, and emotional. Olympias was also the reason behind Alexander's superstitions and strong belief in the occult and omens. Olympias would do anything to see Alexander succeed and told Alexander to never settle for anything because he deserved everything.
Philip put an extreme amount of stress on Alexander by saying he wasn't good enough, but Olympias put even more pressure on him by saying how great he was. Philip claimed he was descended from Heracles, also known as Hercules, while Olympias was believed to have been descended from Helen of Troy as well as the hero Achilles from Homer's the Iliad. The Iliad was Alexander's most treasured story. He even had a copy from his teacher, Aristotle, which he took everywhere he went and even stowed it under his pillow. Alexander liked to think of himself as another version of Achilles.
Also, on her wedding night, Olympias said she dreamed a lightning bolt hit her stomach, meaning she was carrying the king of the gods: Zeus's son. With all these important people surrounding his birth and life, Alexander grew up believing he had to live up to the expectations of, or be better than, the son of a god. To add to this belief, he supposedly was related to the woman who started the Trojan War and a great Homeric hero. Because of this, Alexander lived his life thinking he was almost immortal. When he went to the seer at Siwa, it was proven he was the son of Zeus and, in turn, drove his army harder while thinking he was invincible. This in turn led him to act recklessly at times and put his life and those of his men in danger.
Alexander's companions played a significantly large part in his life. Alexander and his army spent many long years together, and he was greatly loved by all his men. In addition, he always did whatever he asked of his men and would never force his men to do anything he, himself, would not do. Although he held his soldiers in high regard, he had closer bonds with his companions, most likely because he grew up with most of them.
One of Alexander's most cherished companions was not even human. When Alexander was around ten years old, his father and several other men put on quite a show while trying to tame a single horse. Many men tried but failed before Alexander asked to try. Philip thought it would be humorous, so he let Alexander try. All were shocked when the horse not only let him on but also ran with him. Alexander named the horse Bucephalus, Ox-head in English, and rode him into every single battle until Bucephalus died of old age and wounds after a battle at the Hydapses River. This was three years before Alexander's own death.
Alexander cared for Bucephalus deeply. While in Uxia, some men took Bucephalus in order to play a joke on him, but when Alexander discovered him gone, he went on a rampage. He swiftly issued a decree stating he would kill every man in the country if Bucephalus were not returned to him. Of course Bucephalus was returned immediately. After his horses' death, in order to show how much Bucephalus meant to him, Alexander created a large statue of Bucephalus and named a city, Bucephala, in his honor.
Another one of Alexander's companions was Craterus, his most trusted general and one of his closest friends. Most of the time Craterus was Alexander's second-in-command, and he was deeply loved by the Macedonian men. While he loved and respected Alexander he did not agree with Alexander's assimilation into the Persian culture. Like most other Macedonian and Greek men, he believed anyone who did not speak Greek was a barbarian and that they were better than the Persians. No matter his beliefs though, he still followed Alexander. One way Alexander showed his love of Craterus is when he was giving out Persian brides to his men. Craterus was one of only two men who received a royal bride. He was given Amastrine, the daughter of Oxyatres, who was the brother of Alexander's enemy, Darius. This clearly showed Craterus was close to Alexander and was a very important man.
Another of Alexander's generals was a man named Cleitus the Black. Cleitus was an older soldier who served Philip. Cleitus' relationship with Alexander goes all the way back to his birth. He was already serving under Philip when Alexander was born, and his own sister, Lanice, was Alexander's wet nurse. Lanice was often thought by Alexander to be like a mother to him. Cleitus stuck by Alexander long after Philip's death and even saved Alexander's life during the battle of Granicus. Unfortunately, Cleitus' deep commitment to Philip would cause an extreme rift in their relationship.
During a party after Alexander appointed Cleitus Satrap of Bactria, the two got into a major fight. Cleitus, who was angry at being left in a country he disliked and being away from his home, used this opportunity to tell Alexander everything he had been holding back. Both had already been drinking heavily when Cleitus began to touch on a sore spot for Alexander: Philip. Cleitus began yelling about how Philip was far better than Alexander and how Alexander would not be where he was without his father. Considering Alexander's problems with his father about Alexander's worth, Alexander took these comments very badly. Guards had to forcefully take Cleitus from the room but, right at the time Alexander began to calm down, Cleitus stormed back in. Within moments Alexander had a spear shoved through Cleitus' body. Seconds later Alexander realized what he had done and fell to the floor sobbing over the body.
For three days, Alexander isolated himself in his rooms. This is most likely not just because of his actions, but because he knew he may have been able to prevent this earlier. Alexander dreamt Cleitus died days before this happened. Fearing what this could mean, Alexander arranged for offerings to be made for Cleitus and invited Cleitus to his rooms to partake in some Greek fruit. Unfortunately, Cleitus arrived before the ritual could take place.
There were several other people who were close to Alexander. Ptolemy for example, was rumored to be Alexander's bastard half brother from Philip. There was however, no proof of this. It was common knowledge he cared for and greatly respected Alexander. After Alexander's death Ptolemy hijacked his body while it was on its way to Macedon. He took the body to Egypt where he said Alexander would have wanted to stay. Later on Ptolemy would become the Pharaoh of Egypt and even established the Ptolemaic kingdom. In later years he would write his own account of Alexander's life and journeys. This would become one of the worlds leading sources on Alexander the Great.
Unfortunately, there were also people close to Alexander who would turn on him and become his enemy. One man was Philotas. Philotas was the son of one of Alexander's generals, Parmenio, and was a childhood friend of Alexander. Shortly after an incident where pages were charged with trying to poison Alexander, Philotas was charged with the assassination attempt. He had discovered the plot against Alexander but did not report it for two days. He said he did not believe it to be serious. Alexander discovered this when another page informed him of the conspiracy. Philotas was put on trial against his peers and, although he originally denied all accusations, a confession was pulled from him through torture. He was subsequently found guilty. He was then stoned according to Macedonian tradition. Later, more damning evidence surfaced to further prove his deceit. Alexander sent two trusted soldiers to Philotas' father in Ecbatana and, after confirming he did not know of his son's death, handed him a forged letter from Philotas claiming the assassination attempt was a success. When the guards saw Parmenio smile at the news, they quickly killed him in the garden of his own palace.
Cassander was another companion of Alexander who would turn into one if his most deceitful enemies. Cassander was the son of Alexander's regent Antipitar. The two knew each other since childhood. They had a very temperamental relationship. Cassander respected Alexander for being his king, but their relationship did not go further beyond a king and his general. Cassander was known to be an unpleasant, ruthless man who greatly disliked Alexander as a person. There are even suspicions Cassander aided in Alexander's death. One theory is that Antipater gave Cassander medicine to give to Alexander. It was believed Alexander's old teacher, Aristotle, who along with others, began to fear Alexander towards the end of his career and tampered with this medicine. Cassander arrived in Babylon within the last few months of Alexander's life. Soon after his arrival he gave the medicine to Alexander's butler who happened to be his brother Iollas. It would have been easy for him to sneak the poison into Alexander's cup. Alexander died shortly after Cassander's arrival.
Cassander's hate for Alexander continued after the king's death. Cassander then returned to Greece where he seized control. Years later he killed Alexander's mother, Olympias, as well as Alexander's wife, Roxanne, and son, Alexander IV. Although the deeds he accomplished were terrible, and he seemed indifferent to what he had done, he was not unaffected. There was a famous rumor he could not look upon a statue of Alexander without feeling faint and ill at ease. He would later die of tuberculosis in 297 B.C.
It was clear Alexander loved to be loved and preferred to stay in a tight circle of friends and companions, people he trusted and who loved him and those he thought of as beautiful. Alexander's love interests varied greatly. He cared for a eunuch, three Persian wives, and the one person he loved more than anyone else in the entire world was one of his generals.
Bagoas was a young eunuch who had originally served under the great king of Persia, Darius. After Darius fled during the battle at Issus Alexander collected many of the kings' possessions, including Bagoas. Bagoas was a favorite of Darius's and, when he came into Alexander's care, he became a favorite of Alexander. Whether or not Alexander shared a sexual relationship with Bagoas is not clear, but some of Alexander's actions confirmed this suspicion. Bagoas would often dance for Alexander and would be rewarded with public kisses. During Alexander's time of sickness, Bagoas never left Alexander's side. Bagoas disappeared from the history records after Alexander's death.
Alexander had three wives. The first was Roxane. She was the sixteen-year-old daughter of the Bactrian nobleman Oxyartes. The two met when Alexander overtook her father's land and her family became captives. Much like his father before him, Alexander fell in love with her at first sight and quickly decided to marry her. The Macedonian generals did not agree with this at all and fought Alexander on the issue. They wanted their first queen to be of Macedonian descent, not a barbarian from another land they had conquered. Alexander chose to ignore his general's wishes and went ahead with the wedding.
Not much is mentioned of Roxane after the initial marriage. She merely followed Alexander around on his travels. The history records begin to notice Roxane again when it was reported she conceived Alexander's child but then lost the baby. Roxane is mentioned more often towards the end of Alexander's life. Her appearance apparently bore a likeness to Alexander's mother, Olympias. Roxane proved she could be just as cunning as the older queen by dispatching those she felt were a threat.
Shortly after Alexander's death, Roxane gave birth to a son named Alexander IV. With the empire in chaos after the death of Alexander, Roxane decided she needed to get rid of Alexander's other queens. It was not documented what happened to Parysatis, a Persian princess Alexander had married. However, it is known Roxane had Alexander's other wife, Stateira, the daughter of Darius, and her sister, Drypetis, murdered. She then disposed of their bodies in a well. Roxane later ran to join Olympias. The two ordered the execution of the current King Philip, leaving the six-year-old Alexander, sole king. This would not last long, though. Cassander imprisoned Roxane and her son and took control of the kingdom. Several years later he would have thirteen-year-old, Alexander, and his mother executed.
Alexander had many people around him he did not trust, and few he truly did. The one person in his entire world he trusted beyond anyone else was his best friend and lover, Hephaestion. Hephaestion and Alexander were friends since childhood. It is even believed Aristotle taught them together. There is no actual proof of this, but through their campaigns, Hephaestion sent many letters to Aristotle.
It is widely believed the two had an intimate relationship in their younger years and may perhaps have continued on into adulthood. Philip and Olympias expressed concern over their relationship. Alexander was expected to create an heir, but showed no interest in women. Hoping to rectify this, they hired a courtesan to seduce Alexander. This affected Alexander very little, and he continued his relationship with Hephaestion.
Alexander loved Hephaestion more deeply than anyone else. He often compared their relationship to Achilles and Patroclus from Homer's The Iliad. This was extremely significant for many reasons. One is that The Iliad was Alexander's most treasured story, and he tried to base his life around being another Achilles. Another reason is because of the relationship Achilles and Patroclus were believed to have had. The two were close lovers and stayed by each other until the very end. Their love for each other knew no bounds. Alexander felt the same about Hephaestion and proved it to the world early on in his campaigns. After Alexander had become king, they went to Troy to visit the tombs of the two Homeric warriors. In front of the entire army, Alexander laid a wreath upon Achilles tomb as Hephaestion did for Patroclus. By doing this Alexander showed everyone his love for Hephaestion was no less than Achilles love for Patroclus. The two then danced around the tombs naked for the entire world to see.
Later on Alexander would once again publicly prove his devotion to Hephaestion, only this time it would not just be in front of Macedonians and Greeks, but also before Persians. After Darius fled the battle at Issus, Alexander and Hephaestion went to the tent containing Darius's family. His mother, Sisygambis, mistook Hephaestion for Alexander since he was the taller of the two and began to plead for the lives of her family. When an attendant corrected her mistake she began to apologize profusely. Alexander, who was almost always courteous to women, took pity on her and told her she made no mistake, for he too was Alexander. By saying this, Alexander was not only being kind to the older woman, he was also pointing out Hephaestion's place in Alexander's life.
Alexander and Hephaestion continued on in their relationship throughout the campaigns. While homosexual relationships were accepted in ancient Greece, it was very odd for one to last so long. Homosexual relationships were most common between young boys and young boys with grown men. While boys would have relationships in their younger years, when they reached adulthood they would grow out of this stage knowing they had to procreate. Older men would usually only have homosexual relationships with younger boys because they would be teaching them about life. They would become mentors, and the boys learned everything they needed to know from their lover. Alexander and Hephaestion, however, would continue their relationship to their death. This showed the true depth of their feelings for each other.
During the campaigns Alexander showed a deep trust in Hephaestion. Alexander assigned the important jobs of building bridges and assigning kings for each conquered area. He even made Hephaestion, Chilliarch, a Persian term meaning he was Alexander's second in command. The two were often seen sharing couches and wine. Hephaestion was even seen reading Alexander's letters from his mother over his shoulder. No one else would ever be allowed such an honor. By doing this Alexander was sharing his home life with Hephaestion.
A third time Alexander openly showed his favor of Hephaestion was when he was handing out brides to his men. Hephaestion and Craterus were the only two who were given royal brides, but Hephaestion's was especially important. He was given Drypetis, the sister of Alexander's second wife Stateira. Alexander did this in hopes of becoming the uncle to Alexander's children, thereby intertwining their families.
Hephaestion was never very popular among his companions and, as time went on, things became worse. They all were jealous of Hephaestion's place in Alexander's life and, with all the new appointments and honors Hephaestion received, they became even more jealous. They were especially upset over his appointment as Chilliarch. Now he was second in command, meaning, if Alexander died, Hephaestion would be his successor.
Like all relationships, Alexander and Hephaestion were not perfect. Alexander was extremely relentless and did not want to stop his journey, while Hephaestion had problems with Alexander's other companions. Their biggest issue was perhaps, Hephaestion's dislike of Craterus. Craterus was second only to Hephaestion in Alexander's eyes. It was said Craterus loved Alexander the king while Hephaestion loved Alexander for himself. At one point the feud between the two of them escalated to the point where they drew swords on each other. When Alexander was informed of this, he took immediate action. Hephaestion was publicly punished. Alexander told him he was nothing without him. Craterus was punished later privately. He also told the two know matter how much he loved them, but if they fought again he would kill them. He couldn't put up with that type of behavior in his army. He expected no more of them than he did the rest of his men. The two never fought again. Both men loved Alexander too much to disobey him. I personally believe Alexander was so harsh on them because he was worried of what might happen if they truly fought.
While in Ecbatana, Alexander held festive games to help support morale in his troops. During this time, Hephaestion fell ill. He was put on a strict diet and forced to rest. However, while his doctor was away at the games, Hephaestion disobeyed orders and ate a whole chicken and drank a gallon of wine. His fever quickly spiked and Alexander was summoned from the games. Unfortunately, Alexander did not make it in time.
There is no definitive proof of what killed Hephaestion, but there are many possible options. One was that he was truly sick and merely died of his fever. A second option was he died from excessive drinking. Another possible option was he was assassinated. This is the option I choose to believe. There is even historical evidence supporting this idea. A man named Apollodorus sent a message to a man named Peithagorus seeking his help. It is unknown why, but he feared Alexander and Hephaestion. Peithagorus sent a message back claiming he had nothing to fear because Hephaestion would soon be gone. Apollodorus received this message the day before Hephaestion died. The only question that remains is who killed Hephaestion? Many disliked him: Olympias, Roxane, Cassander, Craterus, and many others.
Much like the incident with Cleitus, Alexander laid sobbing over the body until he was forced away, and then he starved himself in his room for three days. When he finally emerged, he had Hephaestion's doctor executed, proclaimed mourning throughout Asia, and began planning for a vast and highly expensive funeral pyre and extravagant funeral games. Alexander ordered the execution of young Cossaeans as a human sacrifice for his lost lover, as Achilles did for Patroclus. Alexander even punished the gods by destroying the temple of Asclepius, the physician god. Alexander always obsessively believed in the gods, so for him to do this was showing how much the loss had effected him. In true Homeric fashion, Alexander shorn his hair, once again as Achilles did for Patroclus, and even went as far as doing the same to his horses. One of Alexander's greatest acts to Hephaestion was when he petitioned the oracle at Siwa. Alexander requested for Hephaestion to be worshiped as a god. His request was refused, but the oracle said Hephaestion would be worshiped as a divine hero.
The army as a whole also honored the loss of Hephaestion. Flutes were forbidden because they were special to Hephaestion; the empires sacred fire was extinguished, an honor reserved for Persian rulers; a likeness of Hephaestion was carried by the Companion Calvary, which Hephaestion was in charge of; and his men dedicated themselves and their weapons in his honor.
With all the chaos surrounding his family and professional life, Alexander truly needed a constant. Hephaestion was the one person who did whatever Alexander asked of him, no matter what, and stayed dedicated to him until his death. Hephaestion was the other half of Alexander, his alter ego, and he truly kept Alexander sane. It is said the only battle Alexander lost was the one against Hephaestion's thighs. According to the philosopher Arrian, Alexander dearly wished he had died instead of Hephaestion, much like Achilles wanted when Patroclus was killed. Alexander lost himself without Hephaestion and died several months later. They were both in their early thirties.
Alexander had many enemies. However, he did not treat all his enemies the same. They were in his way and needed to be killed. Some earned his respect and a few even worked for him. There were two in particular Alexander would show different feelings towards.
Darius was the reigning Great King of Persia. Alexander originally fought him at the battle at Issus where Darius fled. Alexander chased after him and they fought again at Gaugamela where Darius fled once again. Alexander detested Darius at this point and grew weary of having to chase him. Meanwhile Darius was experiencing his own problems. His men mutinied against him and appointed Darius' cousin Bessus, their new king. Darius was held captive until Bessus received news Alexander was nearly upon them. He ordered Darius to be killed and fled. One of Alexander's men accidentally ran across a dying Darius and gave him water. Darius died before Alexander could get there but he asked the man to tell Alexander thank you and he respected him.
After the battle at Issus, Alexander took into his possession Darius' family. He treated them very well and even considered Darius's mother, Sisygambis, like his mother. Darius had heard of Alexander's treatment of his family and was greatly thankful. Now at his death he believed Alexander to be great and respectable man.
When Alexander heard of this, he developed his own respect for Darius and vowed he would not stop until Darius's killer was caught. He chased down Bessus and finally cornered him when his own people gave him up for their own safety. Alexander had him tortured before he sent him to be judged by the Persian people where his nose and ears were cut of before he was publicly executed. These events showed how far Alexander would go for those he respected and how he handled betrayal.
There were a wide variety of people surrounding Alexander the Great's life. They molded his psyche and greatly affected the decisions he made. They affected his future in vastly different ways and played significant roles in shaping his life and making him the historic figure we now read about in textbooks. He was most assuredly a psychologically damaged man due to the actions of his family, friends, lovers, companions, and enemies, but he still continued on to fulfill his own dream of becoming immortal, at least with respect to history if not physically. Today's leaders are molded the same way and are influenced in the same manor as Alexander. They too are products of their environment, just as we all are.
Works Cited
Arrian. The Campaigns of Alexander. Trans. Aubrey De Selincourt. Great Britain: The Chaucer Press, 1971.
Fildes, Alan and Joann Fletcher. Alexander the Great. USA: Duncan Baird, 2001.
Fox, Robin Lane. Alexander the Great. England: Penguin Books, 1973.
Grant, Michael. From Alexander to Cleopatra. USA: Michael Grant Publications, 1982.
Green, Peter. Alexander of Macedon. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991.
Green, Peter. Alexander to Actium. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990.
Hammond, N.G.L. Alexander the Great: King, Commander and Statesman. New Jersey: Noyes Press, 1980.
Nelson, Eric D., and Susan K. Allard-Nelson. The Complete Idiot's Guide to Ancient Greece. USA: Penguin Group, 2004.
O'Brien, John Maxwell. Alexander the Great: The Invisible Enemy. USA and Canada: Routledge, 1992.
Wood, Michael. In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great. Los Angeles: University of California Press, in arrangement with BBC Books, 1997.