I was revising the five major conferences that had a say on how we look at sovereign equality today, and decided that this was fan fiction material. I cover Vienna, Berlin, Hague, Versailles, San Francisco, and briefly the National Security Strategy (Or Napoleon to Bush jr. if you like. Or: the two times Britain saved France's arse from complete oblivion). All with Sovereignty in mind, because that is my topic.
It is heavy on history and stuff. Expecting to learn things. Hope it'll be useful for some!
The more I wrote the more I realised I was writing the rise of America and the gradual fall of the British Empire. This hurt my feels. But that is reality for you.
Five Conferences Where England Mattered, and One Major Decision Where he didn't
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, empire and founder of the Commonwealth, represented by England was used to be a key player in everything. Not only was Europe the centre of the world, but as far as he was concerned he was the centre of Europe.
There had been many wars over the years, and many meetings and settlements of the disputes later. But he had always managed to have a key role in them all. From Vienna to San Francisco, great decision where not made without the UK asserting its pressence.
Not until America grew too strong anyway.
The Congress of Vienna - November 1814 to June 1815
Bloody French Revolution!
Sodding Napoleon!
Everything had become chaos very quickly. Of Course Napoleon would declare every agreement they had ever made invalid. Well... All treaties made by Monarchs – because republic was the new way to go. Just... sigh.
By 1810 the Holy Roman Empire was more or less gone, and France was dominating the map. Apart from the British isles of course. The frogs had not gotten to them! Thank everything holy for the English Channel keeping them apart.
England had attacked Danish ports though, just in case they were thinking of joining Napoleon, which in turn had led Denmark-Norway into joining the war. That had been a stupid decision, but who knows what Denmark had done if they hadn't?
They did win in the end. Brits were not French just yet, and nor was the rest of Europe.
However, they were now gathered to rebuild Europe. Both borders and agreements needed to be restored and re-negotiated. This happened every single time. So much hassle.
They had agreed that all parties involved in the war should meet and decide Europe's future. However, the great winning powers being, well, great, winning powers had decided to meet on their own first.
They would divide territory amongst themselves. Although, Britain's foreign minister, Castlereagh, had suggested they pretend all the actors were equal. It would bring some legitimacy to the table. Even if it ultimately was just a show.
Austria, and his human representation Metternich looked pale these days, they had nearly fallen in the war. But they were now going strong again. Friedrich Von Gentz, Metternich personal secretary and Secretary General of the Congress of Vienna, had suggested to them over a cup of tea that "you know, we are all equal actors and all. But Britain's equality is different to that of Poland. It should all be measured on the possession of our rights!"
England loved being in the Great Power club. Hell, he was the definition of a Great Power, and had even incorporated it into his official name. True enough, the "great" had come from distinguishing it from the "minor" Britain. The continental bit distinct from the island. But "Great Britain" truly did suit old Blighty these days. Empire and all that. And the winner of yet another war. Against the French no less.
Now, establishing lasting peace was key.
The leading actors were Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria. They had been arguing for a bit whether or not to include France in the discussions. Yes, they had been the cause of the war, but one could not rebuild Europe without France.
Britain and Austria had wanted France in on the discussions, although France would of course not get anything from it, having started a war and all. Talleyrand, the French diplomat assigned to Vienna, had been fabulous at arguing France's case too. Although Britain would like to take most of the credit for France's survival, he had to admit that Talleyrand was skilled.
His name also sounded very peculiar in English, but he refused to pronounce it in French for obvious, rival reasons.
The allies had been clever enough to suggest entertaining the other countries and their representatives with Beethoven and good food. The sad reality was that England would not be able to attend concerts. The good thing was that he would be deciding the future of Europe along with only a few others.
As Gentz would have it, true equality did not exist. They would respect the rights of a state, but those rights were certainly not the same. For instance, as Denmark had supported Napoleon, and Sweden had fought along with Britain, Norway would now transfer from Danish to Swedish control.
Indeed, the Norwegians had sat down and made a constitution, believing they would finally gain independence. But truth was, their rights were not the same as the rights of Sweden, which was undoubtedly a bigger actor.
The allies had decided, of course, that Monarchy is still the way to go -apart from France, who got to keep their republic – and that Princes could still rightfully inherit the throne.
Territory wise, all they wanted to do was create a barrier towards France. No point risking the French going off to do something else stupid and passionate in the future. At least not without being quickly stopped.
They established a bigger Netherlands for this purpose alone.
Poland was in complete ruin. England felt sorry for that little country, and had decided that Russia and Prussia would have to give back some of the land they stole off Poland. He was backed by Austria and France, which avoided conflict.
At one point he was sure Prussia was going to punch him. But his delegate, Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, had agreed to give up on Saxony as long as they got the Rhineland. He knew how to sacrifice for the greater good.
Russia's creepy smile had deepened however. If England could avoid a war with Russia for all of eternity he would be very happy, but there was no chance he was backing down. Even to really scary countries. Who looked like they wanted to invite you to tea and cakes then use your dead body to mop the floor with later.
England wondered distant-mindedly, when he looked at him across the table when they had meetings, if it was the harsh climate that had shaped him. Or possibly his relations with others. Well, Russia was friendly, in his defence. But his aura was cold as ice.
Arthur had to admit that when France was granted access to the Great Power club again he had been more relieved than he should have been, simply because he knew how to deal with France. Rather France than Russia any day.
Russia has brought the Tzar Alexander I with him. He had been a bit of an idealist, and the other delegates had all been calling him childish behind his back. Alexander on his side seemed to think the rest of them were cynical. The Tzar wanted to balance power and get along.
Russia had also wanted Poland. But England put is foot down. Poor Poland! And more importantly, what would happen if Russia got too strong? He was already strong enough in England's opinion.
England and Castlereagh had mutually decided that what was best for Britain and Europe was probably to strengthen Germany and Italy, to create more weight and balance elsewhere. Castlereagh was such a gem. England was eternally grateful for his presence. They were both highly suspicious of Russian expansion.
They decided that the great power would meet from time to time to settle potential European disputes. England was quite sure there would be many of them.
One of the agreements they did reach was that when a country fell "rogue", had failed and couldn't sustain itself, they would no longer simply invade it. Problems were not to be solved by conquest, they would actually have to invade and then ensure settlement, and try to fix the problem. Sort of mandates, really.
They had also agreed that they had a right to intervene if someone else were to have a crazy, internal revolution that could potentially threaten everyone else. England and Castlereagh had been incredibly sceptical however.
Such an idea could possibly protect them in the future, and the British people did no such thing as revolution thank you very much, but it opened for the idea that other countries could invade your borders. That could potentially be scary in the future.
On top of that Prussia, Austria, and Russia had this great idea of forming "The Holy Alliance". Arthur couldn't but sigh at how incredibly cheesy that sounded. "Justice, Christian Charity, and Peace?" he muttered to himself when he boarded the train back to London after the conference.
"No way I am joining such a stupid club," he muttered.
All in all Vienna had been a success as far as he was concerned. Establishing long lasting order and conservative rule, had been something he and Austria could agree upon.
The more stable Continental Europe was, the more stable domestic Britain would be. Not only that, but he felt responsible for Peace in Europe in a way. But mostly because he liked being important.
Berlin Conference 1884-1885
This conference was going to be all about Africa. West Africa and Congo in particular. England was assuming his East-Africa was safe and sound, but he was more than prepared to fight for it.
Germany had decided to play imperial power, just like several other Europeans. Most countries that had at least some respect for themselves, and a couple of quid at least to found a ship with some guns for exploration, did.
England's greatest priority was of course access to India. If nothing else, that was key. To be able to safely travel to the jewel of the empire.
They were meeting in Berlin to formalise the colonisation of Africa. But also, Arthur feared, to discuss the future of empire and if it was actually a legitimate practise at all. The idea of all the other Europeans ganging up on him, forcing him to give up on his empire on "Common European Law" grounds, had kept him up at night.
Could he fight a war against them all?
Surely France would not be amused either. Portugal, however, had lost its South American colony and was looking towards Africa. They could not possibly be a threat to the British Empire! Could they? In any rate, Russia was a sort of empire too, but a land-based one. Britain was an island. It would be highly unfair if that was to have a say!
The empire was more trade than actual assertion of sovereignty anyways. There were hardly Brits in India, everything was indirectly after all. Of course, apart from the settled areas. New Zealand and Australia for instance. England was sure he could argue his case if he had to.
Only Christian, civilised countries could be sovereign anyway. Why couldn't they legally take over the uncivilised areas and make them more liveable? This worked well as an argument until someone would point out that signing treaties with natives sort of meant they had some sovereign authority to sign. England hoped nobody would think of that. He was certainly not going to point it out.
They recognised and respected the Ottoman empire in 1856, which Arthur thought had been very civilised and generous of them indeed.
The meetings themselves had been a bit dull. The other countries present were Austria-Hunary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Italy, Netherlands,Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and the Ottoman Empire. The United States had been invited, but had declined. Firstly, because they didn't have the means to partake in the scramble for Africa, and secondly because it didn't want to give the conference any more legitimacy.
In all fairness, the whole thing had started because France and Britain was scared of Germany's sudden colonial lust. It might not have escalated to war, but it was good to organise a conference just in case. England liked things to be discussed and organised in a civilised manner.
England's ever favourite part of conferences are the hallway, and secret hotel room, discussions. Secret meetings that are the actual meetings which will determine their future. He and a small group of other great powers had decided to create the "Congo Free State" after a meeting in a corridor. This was what politics was all about!
The king of Belgium had become the private leader of the International Association of Congo, dedicated to exploration and free trade. In hindsight that might not have been the best of decisions, but Congo was not on the UK's main agenda anyway.
All in all a successful, but uneventful, conference as far as England was concerned.
Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
The year was 1899 and the Russian Tzar had called for a conference. Officially he wanted to regulate weapons and warfare in Europe to create a sense of common law. England, however, knew the Tzar was scared.
Probably with good reason too. Their warfare, their technological advancements and modernisation in weapons, could scare anyone. Particularly a country that felt left behind. England's discovery of the Indian bullets which expanded when you shot people could keep even him awake at night.
They had started an European arms race, there was no doubt about it. But it had been accelerated by Germany recently, who were trying to build a fleet capable of competing with Britain.
The Sino-Japanese war of 1895 and the Anglo-French confrontation at Fashoda had proven that there was a dangerous game they had started playing. And there had been various peace movements to try to fight it. This conference was going to regulate some of the worst weapons and try to create some understanding.
Disputes were beginning to be settled by arbitration these days. England's disagreements with the US were sorted in court, not through war. The world was really changing around Arthur. In a sense he liked it. In another, it was a slight threat to his empire. As long as the world recognise his legitimate authority over his territory around the world he was happy.
In 1899, 26 nations were present. The biggest conference yet. 20 were European, 4 Asian, and two were American. At the time there were around 59 recognised states in the world.
They were all gathered to discuss disarmament, although they actually achieved very little. England had argued that it would favour the savage nations if the great powers were to stop their technological advantages.
They did, however, decide that the use of poisonous gasses, balloons, and the Indian bullets were to be banned. They also set out more rules of war conduct, and a court of arbitration.
Not enough were achieved, according to some, and not many years later they found themselves gathered together again.
In 1907, 44 States were present. These conferences were growing bigger and bigger.
The arbitration court and prize court was elaborated upon. It was nice to have rules upon when something was lawfully seized or not in battle. This point was taken quite seriously and led into very long discussions. England lost count of all the tea he consumed in the process, just to keep alert. This was important to the British Empire after all, being a great sea nation and former pirate.
The states present had equal voting power, which was very new. Arthur didn't know if he liked this very much. It was a revolutionary and including idea. But he rather liked it when it had only been an exclusive gang of Great Powers.
The Brazilian delegate, Barbosa, was passionately defending equality. So much passion. Why couldn't everyone simply calm down? England was getting a headache. All of the nagging about equal rights. It was only a few years ago that Friedrich Von Gentz had argued that States have different sort of equal rights, right?
The conferences was getting mixed up in the Brit's head.
After a break they returned to discuss debt collecting. The very reason why the US had left Britain, really. The idea discussed now was that the European nations could set up blockades in order to pressure countries into paying their debts.
Arthur rather favoured this idea. They needed some means to assert their rights, after all. However, the Latin Americans opposed the practice. Of course they bloody did! Oh well. If anything, England didn't have such a strong presence in Latin America.
After all, already in 1839 the British navy would board suspected slave ships to stop them. They were often Portuguese. France had intervened in Syria, and Russia in the Ottoman Empire, and it seemed to be a change towards this sort of behaviour.
Britain was all in favour of this – as long as nobody had the stupid idea of interfering on British soil!
Military occupation was an ever interesting practise. Where did sovereignty go? It was assumed that the occupants – the new owners – were the new sovereigns. But now people were discussing the idea that even though your military was there you were not sovereign.
The world was quickly becoming more regulated. And Alfred was beginning to take more interest. Still, England's former colony, and little brother, was not a big actor just yet. And Arthur's empire was still going strong!
Treaty of Versailles (1919)
There had been a World War. A bloody, Great War, nobody had seen the likes of before. The UK had won, as usual, but to such a high price. Too high.
As they all met in Versailles there was a different vibe to the room. Everyone seemed more quiet. Taking in the seriousness of the situation. It had been a short, but beyond devastating war.
The conference was all about the world war, and the laws and conduct of war. The whole bloody standard of civilisation was in question.
The whole war had started out with alliances. Everyone believing they were balancing power, so that there wouldn't be a war. How very wrong they had been.
England was clutching his cup of tea, shoulders more slumped than usual. Skin as pale as humanoids can get, dark circles around his eyes, and for the first time in a conference ever, a wrinkled shirt. America, next to him, looked his usual, cheery self. He had joined last minute, saving England's arse, while getting to play hero. And that only because the Germans had sunk a ship with US civilians by mistake. Bloody wanker. In fact, the lot of them were bloody twats!
The war had gone from awkward alliances, to a war of ideology. Democracies against authoritarians.
US President Wilson was being very idealistic at this meeting. He was going to singlehandedly save humanity, in fact. Also, for the first time since Arthur can ever remember, a European Great Power is deemed rogue and uncivilised. It used to be "Africa", or places in Asia that was uncivilised. But now Germany was an 'enemy of mankind'.
Because their submarine warfare was deemed evil. England tried to bite back that that was mostly because a few Americans died. Tons of Britons had died in trenches in France. Didn't matter at all. But a few Americans.. God, his head hurt. He just wanted a peaceful night of sleep, without being scared of waking up to a London being part of the German reich.
Wilson, however, didn't have a quarrel with the German people, but the German elite. Initially he didn't want the German people to pay, but these notions faded away quite quickly, as America started blaming the whole of Germany.
America insisted diplomacy should be in open light. That people all over should know everything and be involved. Then, after dinner one evening, he had invited England, France and Italy back to his hotel room. Now, this sort of politics England was familiar with.
Great Power club of decisions? He could live with this.
Wilson was very clear on the fact that the US was not a real part of the alliance, but wanted to stay an 'associate'. The Americans wanted to prohibit future European interference in America.
They were to create a League of Nations, where of course the Great Allied Powers would have more say than others. Germany was not invited.
One single European power, for the first time Arthur could remember, got the blame for the whole war. France had not single handedly had to pay for the Napoleonic war. But here they were, asking Germany to pay up, keep their standing army at a thousand men, and try their head of state for war crimes.
War, as England saw it, had stopped being legitimate. It had gone from being the normal way of settling disputes, to becoming a complete taboo. And people everywhere appealed to America for self determination and help.
Arthur had stopped and looked at himself in the mirror one night after a meeting, hand still shaking as he drank a little night cup to steady his nerves, and thought: what if America challenges my empire up front? Then what?
There had been the question of Germany's colonies. France had just about jumped up and down asking for them, but America ignored him, wanted the League of Nations to keep and administer them.
Arthur knew, however, that Great Power solidarity was still more important than the League. As America's secret hotel room meeting had proven. England was glad. He didn't want to relinquish any actual power.
He was worried about Germany however. They had never excluded an European Great Power like this before.
San Francisco (1951)
England had never been much of an 'I told you so,' person, but if he was. Well. World War Two had happened. Because they had been idiots and given Germany the whole blame the last time leaving people miserable and desperate enough to turn to the likes of Hitler.
Just thinking about the war made England physically ill. The worst part had actually been the liberation. To walk into the Concentration Camps and Ghettos. From Amsterdam to Warsaw to Prague. Europe had been a miserable sight.
London had been badly hurt as well. The House of Commons would have to be rebuilt. But they would manage. They always did.
The United Kingdom was becoming increasingly broke - to the point of nearly fighting wars with ice cream vans. The protectorates, mandates, and colonies were all a bit hard to deal with. A proper imperial overstretch. Palestine had been a catastrophe. He knew he should have asked for help, but he was too bloody proud.
Now America, lead by Roosevelt this time, wants to - along with UK, Russia and China - become the world police. Suggesting that small states should have nothing more dangerous than rifles. England found himself spacing out in the most idealistic parts of US speeches reflecting upon how much the world had changed around him.
Only a few years ago the Great Powers had been completely different ones. He had been there the whole way, but Prussia was gone, France kept being ignored by America, and China had carved a place for itself in the world finally. They had always been so very quiet and inward-looking.
Stalin, from Russia, wanted security and recognition of his borders. England had started feeling a bit fonder of Russia - though they didn't see eye to eye on just about anything - because he had been there for as long as he had. Although he had changed more. Revolutions and all that.
America had grown so strong. England looked over at Alfred. All pumped up and energetic. He himself felt so old and tired. Increasingly becoming an alcoholic too. Arthur was very grateful for Churchill. Broke or not, he put them on the map.
The others still saw Britain as a great power. They still looked to him, and he was going to be included in the group of 'World Police' that the US was creating. If he played his cards right he could keep being important around the world, even if he lost some, or most, of the colonies.
Sovereign equality was pitched up against the great power club. It truly was a sort of paradox, drawing a charter to make everyone equal, sovereign states, but putting yourself above most of the others. At least their rhetoric was nice, although hierarchical and empty.
A problem appeared when Russia refused to meet China, though. But Alfred insisted on China being important. Both as a huge actor, but also because he thought China would mostly agree with their decisions in the future. Well, one can't always be right.
In many ways this meeting in San Francisco was to end the war properly with Japan. And to make the UN work properly. The League of Nations had been a failure as too many important actors had refused to join.
So, there were four great powers to police the world. But England insisted on including France as the fifth. Arthur kept arguing to Alfred that France still was a Great Power, and it would be good to have another Westerner into the mix. What if Russia and China ganged up against US and UK? There would be a stalemate. With France, however chances were they would have odds on their favour.
That was the idea anyway.
Francis should really be scraping on hands and knees for every time England saved his arse from oblivion!
Although the arguments he gave to America were through he constantly wondered if he was just scared of being left alone with three too strong powers. Scared that his old rival had fallen, and that it would soon be Britain's turn to follow. It felt safer to have France there with them. Even though it might be for more irrational than rational reasons.
Mexico suggested the distinction between permanent and nonpermanent members in the United Nations Security Council. Which wasn't such a bad idea, but when they then suggested they would vote every 8 years on who the Great Powers were the great five put their feet down quickly.
England nearly hyperventilating into a brown bag. Swallowing nervously.
Alfred nonchalantly argued that the great powers had extra responsibilities to make sure the world was safe and sound. They were the awesome police and all! Mexico wanted them to specify the responsibilities.
The UN charter tried to specify rules as much as it could. The use of force would be legitimate only in self defence. Someone argued what would happen if it didn't say in the charter. Would that just make it legal?
England promptly suggested having a meeting to discuss those cases when they arose.
Chapter 2 of the Charter outlined not to intervene in domestic affairs. There would also be equal voting rights in the General Assembly. Only the Security Council would have the veto-right perks for the Permanent Five.
America was firm and threatened to rip everything apart unless the others agreed on his terms. England was free riding on this, but felt a bit uneasy. They needed the US, otherwise the whole UN was a waste of time, but it should not be The America With Friends Charter.
The right to veto was a superpower incentive. And England was only too glad America let him be included. But when had the world become The America Show? Bloody former colonies and their strong military and economies...
His greatest fear was even realised when Alfred started putting proper pressure on him withdrawing from his colonies. Not that he had the economy to dragging it out too much anyway. England kept having headaches this century apparently. Many of them were Alfred-related too.
The United States of America's National Security Strategy of 2002
"Are you out of your bloody mind!? Have you completely lost it!?" Arthur yelled at Alfred.
He had just flown to America upon hearing the news, whereupon he had read The Bush Doctrine, or National Security Strategy, if you prefer. The year is 2002, and the US is still dealing with the aftermaths of 9/11. And they are doing it wrong.
"What?" America said and looked up from his computer screen. They were in his office.
"The National Security Strategy, Alfred! Or should I say: The right to violate sovereignty through preventive attacks. You have just declared war on the world, mate! You just released a document saying that you will keep the right to attack anyone anywhere that you feel might be a potential future threat!" he yelled. Arthur found he simply couldn't keep his voice down.
"I am just protecting myself, old man. I thought you would get it. I was attacked by terrorists! We need to stop them, England," Alfred said, much more calmly.
"Of course we need to stop them, America. But not by making world order fall into anarchy. If everyone does the same as you there will be no law anymore. Not only that but you pointed out an 'Axis of Evil'. North Korea seemed to be slightly warming up again after the war, now you killed any chance in hell we had on them calming down completely!" Arthur didn't want to cry, so he bit his lip hard instead.
He needed to calm down, and to make America see sense and reason.
"Well. I am the only remaining Superpower, and what I say goes, ok?" Alfred stated, as if it was the most obvious thing in the world.
"No. It is not OK at all. I don't even have a guarantee that you will not attack me in the future. You basically just said you can if you want to Alfred. Well, you said that your democratic friends will fix the world together with you. Not only that, but you are going to attack a random country. Yes, Iraq is not in good ruling hands, but the majority of the bombers came from Saudi Arabia!" England said calmer, taking a deep breath.
"You are not simply the strongest military power on earth, either. Several scholars these days believe you might actually be a new form of empire, Alfred. At least a proper hegemon. You cannot simply do what you want, kid!" he said. Finally waiting for America to reply.
"I might be strong, but I am no empire. I am not like you, England. I don't just take over other countries to extract their resources. I don't even understand how your stupid little island ever got to have that much power. But frankly, you are just a bad loser. You can't admit that you have no power whatsoever over the international system anymore," Alfred bit back.
"I am still a Great Power, Alfred. But they had to invented a whole new word for what you have become! Superpower. I am sorry, but as your stories like to emphasise, 'with great power comes great responsibilities', and you are the sodding Superman of states! I need you to be responsible!" England replied, ignoring the bits about his empire. He knew he had been wrong taking over a quarter of the world. But this wasn't about him anymore.
"I am going to invade Iraq and take revenge for the people that died on 9/11! And you are either with me, against me, or a friggin' coward, England!" America said, looking down on the smaller country with piercing eyes.
England sighed, his impressive eyebrows frowned, but his shoulders slumped in defeat.
"Of course I am with you America. I always am," he answered.
The rest of Europe would not back them up, he knew that, and he couldn't let America fight alone. The United States were making a bad decision, a stupid move, towards legitimising unauthorised violence. Undermining everything they had built after the two World Wars.
On the other hand, he knew that Alfred was young, impulsive and hurt. He needed something, and he needed to show his people that he was doing something. What this would do to the international community however was something only time would tell.
The right to preventive war - attacking against an enemy serving no imminent threat - could, if adopted by enough countries, lead into total anarchy and a state of hierarchy that, despite everything, England did not want to relive.
Cheers a lot for reading!
I hope you liked it. Very much the world from a British perspective, I know. But what can you do? Well, if you guys wanted to you could always write me something from your own side of the story xD I'd really love that.