Chapter 5
T/F
Actually don't need to eat cholesterol bc body can manufacture it itself
Americans are not eating too high a percentage of calories from fat daily
A healthy diet is not very low in fat
Red meat is not the major source of saturated fat in the diet
Fat free cookies do not have half the calories of full-fat varieties
A high amount of HDL cholesterol in your blood is good for you
Butter is more unhealthy than margarine
Peanut butter is not high in cholesterol bc it does not come from an animal
Taking fish oil supplement does not reduce your risk of heart disease
Oatmeal can help lower your cholesterol bc of the viscous soluble fiber found in oatmeal
5.1
Lipids - a category of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen compounds that are insoluble in water
Hydrophobic - having an aversion to water
Fat is just a name for triglycerides.
Triglycerides are found most abundantly in food, so nutrition sources refer to them as dietary fat
Three types of lipids are triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols. The first two are built from fatty acids.
Fatty acids consist of a chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms, with acid group COOH at one end. 18 carbons.
Long fatty acids are strongly attracted to one another, and are relatively straight so they can pack tightly together in food (found in chocolate)
Shorter fatty acids have weaker attraction to one another, so they are liquid at room temperature
Saturated fats - fats that contain mostly saturated fatty acids
Saturated fats and other solid fats should be minimized in diet bc they are not healthy for the heart
Stearic acid - saturated fatty acid
Oleic acid - monounsaturated fatty acid (double bond in carbon chain) found in olive oil
Linoleic acid - polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid (2 double bonds create 2 bends)
Alpha linolenic acid - polyunsaturated, omega 3 fatty acid
Monounsaturated fatty acid - a fatty acid that has one double bond
Unsaturated fatty acids - a fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons. Liquid at room temp.
Unsaturated fats - fats that contain mostly unsaturated fatty acids. These are considered important to your health
Saturated - butter
Unsaturated - olive oil
Polyunsaturated fatty acid - two or more double bonds. Healthy fat
Essential fatty acids - the two polyunsaturated fatty acids that the body cannot make and therefore must be eaten in foods: linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid.
Linoleic acid - a polyunsaturated essential fatty acid, part of the omega-6 fatty acid family. Found in soybean oil
Alpha-linoleic acid - a polyunsaturated essential fatty acid, part of the omega-3 fatty acid family
Monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats are considered healthy
Triglyceride - three fatty acids that are attached to a glycerol backbone
Glycerol - the three-carbon backbone of a triglyceride
Triglyceride = fat (term)
Oils - fats that are liquid at room temperature
Phospholipids - lipids made of two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to a glycerol backbone
The portion where the phosphate is attached to the glycerol is referred to as the head, which is hydrophilic (attracts water). The tails are hydrophobic
Emulsifier - a compound that keeps two incompatible substances like oil and water mixed together
Sterol - a lipid that contains 4 connecting rings of carbon and hydrogen. Ex. cholesterol
Precursor - a substance that is converted into or leads to the formation of another substance
Three types of lipids - triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols
Ex. (saturated fat, unsaturated fat, trans fat) (lecithin) (cholesterol)
Lipids are made of CHO
Triglycerides are most prevalent in the human body
5.2
Most fat digestion occurs in the small intestine
Liver produces bile, stored in the gallbladder
Gallbladder releases bile into the small intestine
Bile secreted from the gallbladder emulsifies fat into smaller globules
Diglyceride - a glycerol with only two attached fatty acids
Monoglyceride - a glycerol with only one attached fatty acid
Bile - produced by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, secreted into the small intestine, which emulsifies the fat into smaller globules, allowing enzymes to break the fat down.
Micelles - small carriers in the intestine that enable fatty acids and other compounds to be absorbed.
Lymph - watery fluid that circulates the body in lymph vessels and eventually enters the blood.
Long chain fatty acids can't enter bloodstream directly and enter the lymph, but short chain fatty acids can enter bloodstream
Lipoproteins - capsule-shaped carriers that enable fat and cholesterol to travel through the lymph and blood
Chylomicron - a type of lipoprotein that carries digested fat and other lipids through the lymph system into the blood. Too large to be absorbed directly into the bloodstream, so they travel through lymph system first and then enter your blood.
Liver produces other lipoproteins:
Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) - a lipoprotein that delivers fat made in the liver to the tissue. VLDL remnants are converted into LDLs
Low density lipoprotein (LDL) - a lipoprotein that deposits cholesterol in the walls of the arteries. Because this can lead to heart disease, LDL is referred to as the bad cholesterol carrier.
High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - a lipoprotein that removes cholesterol from the tissues and delivers it to the liver to be used as part of bile and/or to be excreted from the body. Bc of this, it is known as the good cholesterol carrier.
Proportion of protein determines their overall density
High protein content in HDL help enable carrier to expand and contract, depending on the amount of fat and cholesterol it is carrying.
Main role of VLDLs is to deliver fat that is made in the liver to your tissues. After fat is delivered, VLDL is converted into LDLs, which then deliver cholesterol to your cells and are often referred to as the bad cholesterol bc they deposit cholesterol in the walls of your arteries, which can lead to heart disease.
LDL is bad "L" for lousy lol
HDL is good "H" for healthy
HDL are 50% protein. They remove cholesterol from your cells and deliver it to your liver to be used to make bile or to be excreted from your body.
Fats require phospholipids to transport them through the blood bc of their hydrophobic nature
The cholesterol removed by VLDLs is not used to make bile for fat breakdown
5.3
Fat is 9 calories per gram, carbs and protein 4 calories per gram
Body has unlimited ability to store excess energy as fat
Body has limited ability to store glucose.
Fat allows you to absorb fat-soluble vitamins ADEK and carotenoids (antioxidants)
Not consuming enough fat may impede your absorption of these fat soluble vitamins and compounds. The fat located under the skin also helps insulate the body and maintain body temperature
Linoleic acid (omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3) are essential for cell health
Omega carbon is the last carbon of the fatty acid
Linoleic acid deficiency can interfere with normal growth and result in inflammation of skin. Can also affect functioning of the brain and nervous system.
Linoleic acid makes polyunsaturated fatty acids called arachidonic acid and eicosanoids
Eicosanoids - hormonelike substances in the body. Prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes are all eicosanoids.
Alpha-linolenic acid an also be converted to - EPA and DHA, two omega 3 fatty acids that are heart healthy
All fish contain EPA and DHA, and they reduce heart disease
Cholesterol is part of the cells membranes and is needed to make vitamin D, bile acids, and sex hormones
Alpha 3 makes DHA and EPA
Omega 6 makes arachidonic acid and eicosanoids
5.4
American fat consumption is about 35% of calories
Current AMDR rec is that 20-355 of daily calories should come from fat. For some people, a low fat, high carb diet will cause an increase in fat in blood and lowering of the good HDL cholesterol.
Vegetable oils are good sources of essential fatty acids
Women need 12 grams of linoleic, and 1.1 grams of alpha-linoleic
Solid fats like butter, chicken fat. Cream, coconut oil, palm kernel and palm oils and hydrogenated oils should be avoided bc they are heart-unhealthy fat.
Consuming too much saturated fat can lead to higher levels of 'bad' LDL cholesterol carrier
Hydrogenation - adding hydrogen to an unsaturated fatty acid to make it more saturated and solid at room temp.
Trans fatty acids - substances that result from the hydrogenating of an unsaturated fatty acid, causing a reconfiguring of some of its double bonds. A small amount of trans fatty acids occur naturally in animal foods
Trans fats raise LDL and lower HDL
Rancidity - spoiling of fats through oxidation
DO be sure to get enough of the two heart-healthy essential fatty acids, linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid, in your diet by consuming adequate amounts of polyunsaturated fats in your daily meals.
DO choose mono- and polyunsaturated fats over saturated fats when possible, as these unsaturated fats are better for you. Saturated fats should be kept to less than 10 percent of your total calories, because they aren't good for your heart or your blood cholesterol levels.
DON'T add trans fats to your diet. These are unhealthy for your heart and blood cholesterol levels and should be consumed as little as possible.
DON'T worry about eating enough cholesterol, because your body makes all it needs.
Th
Fat intake should range from 20-35% of total calories. 5-10% should come from linoleic acid and 0.6-1.2 percent should come from alpha-linoleic acid. No more than 10% should come from saturated fat. You do not need to eat cholesterol in foods
5.5 - Best food sources of fats
Foods with unsaturated fats are better than saturated fats
Most saturated fat comes from animal foods
It's impossible to eliminate all saturated fat from your diet
5.6
Fat substitutes - substances that replace added fat in foods by providing the creamy properties of fat for fewer calories and fewer total fat grams
Fat subs are either carb, protein, or fat based.
Carb based - use plant polysaccharides such as fiber, starches, gums, and cellulose to help maintain moisture. Good for frying
Protein based - created from protein in eggs and milk. Not suitable for frying and baking
Fat based - modified fat. Mono and diglycerides are used as emulsifiers in products such as baked goods and icings to provide moistness and mouth-feel
Ex. olestra (can be used in baked and fried foods). Doesn't provide calories bc it can't get absorbed by the GI tract.
Fat free snacks may reduce fat intake, but still increases calories
5.7 - heart disease
CVD (cardiovascular disease) - most common type is coronary heart disease, which affects the blood vessels that serve the heart muscle and can lead to a heart attack.
Heart disease develops when the walls of the coronary arteries accumulate a buildup of substances such as fat and cholesterol. A narrowed artery increases likelihood that a blood clot can block the vessel, leading to a heart attack. If artery leads to the brain, a stroke can occur.
Heart attack - permanent damage to the heart muscle that results from a sudden lack of oxygen-rich blood
Stroke - a condition caused by a lack of oxygen to the brain that could result in paralysis and possibly death
Atherosclerosis - narrowing of the coronary arteries due to buildup of debris along the artery walls
Plaque - the hardened buildup of cholesterol-laden foam cells, platelets, cellular waste products, and calcium in the arteries that result in atherosclerosis
Over time, LDLs seep beneath the vessel lining, becoming oxidized, attracting macrophages (immune cells) and develop into foam cells, which buildup to form plaque
Type 1 diabetes is a risk factor that you cannot control, but type 2 is something you can control
Up until 50, women have a lower risk of heart disease
Normal blood pressure is 120/80
Systolic pressure - pressure within your arteries when your heart contracts
Diastolic pressure - pressure in your arteries a moment later, when your heart is relaxed.
Hypertension - high blood pressure - blood reading of 140/90
Ppl with hypertension constantly have a higher than normal force against the walls of their arteries.
Regular exercise can help lower LDL and raise HDL
A high level of HDL cholesterol is considered a negative risk factor in which there is so much good that it erases the bad.
Other risk factors for heart disease:
A high level of the amino acid homocysteine may injure arteries and promote the development of atherosclerosis.
A high level of a protein called C-reactive protein can indicate that there is inflammation in the walls of the arteries, which can lead to plaque formation.
A lipid–protein compound called Lp(a) is being investigated for its role in promoting heart disease.
Apolipoprotein B (ApoB) is a measure of the amount of "bad" LDL cholesterol in the blood. A high ApoB level indicates a higher risk for heart disease
Syndrome X, or metabolic syndrome - a cluster of many factors that increase the risk for heart disease. Ex. abdominal obesity, high blood pressure, etc
5.8
Cholesterol level chart:
Good, high, too high
Cholesterol - less than 200, 200-239, more than 240
LDL - less than 100, 100-129, 130-159, 160-189, 190
HDL - more than 60, 40-60, less than 40
Mediterranean diet is great for you
Less than 2 ounces of meat daily and no more than 4 eggs weekly
Minimize saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol in your diet
Butter has more saturated fat than stick margarine, but liquid vegetable oil has the least amount of saturated fat, so it's better
Fatty fish is rich in EPA and DHA
Plant based foods like walnuts and flaxseeds and soybeans and canola oils, are all high in alpha-linolenic acid. AL acid is converted in the body to omega 3
Phytosterols - naturally occurring sterols found in plants. Lowers LDL levels by competing with cholesterol for absorption in the GI tract
Nuts are rich in antioxidants and fiber and have a positive effect on LDL levels. But they are high in calories
Flavonoids - phytochemicals found in fruits, vegetables, tea, nuts, and seeds
Dark chocolate, green tea
Rec 150 min of weekly exercises
To raise HDL levels, you need to exercise
Chapter Test:
The "backbone" of a triglyceride is a glycerol molecule
Large intestine does not assist in the digestion of lipids
HDLs have the most protein
Every gram of fat contains 9 calories
Cheese is the biggest contributor of solid fats in american diets
Monounsaturated fatty acids include: canola oil, cashew nuts and almonds, olives and olive oil
Saturated fats are likely to be found in whole milk
Trans fats are created through hydrogenation
Essential fatty acids cannot be made by the body and must be eaten
Phospholipids have a tail attracted to fat and a head attracted to water
Bile acts as an emulsifier in fat digestion
Long chain fatty acids are too large to be absorbed into the bloodstream , which is why the lymphatic system is so useful
Eating a moderate amount of dietary fat without consistently consuming excess calories can support weight maintenance or loss
Type 1 diabetes is an unchangeable risk factor
Saturated fat raises LDL the most
Flaxseeds, walnuts, and soybean oil are all good sources of linoleic and alpha linoleic acids
Exercise can help lower LDL and raise HDL
Trans fats raises LDL and lowers HDL
CHAPTER 6
Americans are actually eating less red meat than they were decades ago
Eating too much protein rich foods may increase risk of heart disease
Proteins - compounds in your body that consist of numerous amino acids and are found in all living cells
Amino acids - building blocks of protein. Made of CHON. all amino acids are composed of an acid group
Peptide - fewer than 50 amino acids
Dipeptide - 2 joined amino acids
Tripeptide - 3 joined amino acids
Polypeptide - more than 10
Protein - more than 50, tho usually btwn 100-10,000
Acid group - COOH
Amine group - NH2
Side chain - R group. It's what makes each amino acid different
Peptide bonds - the bonds that connect amino acids, created when the acid group of one amino acid is joined with the nitrogen-containing amine group
Hemoglobins consist of several separate protein chains linked together. The shape of the protein determines its function.
Side chains are hydrophilic or hydrophobic
Essential amino acids - the nine amino acids that the body cannot synthesize; they must be obtained through dietary sources.
Nonessential amino acids - the 11 amino acids that the body can synthesize. Body creates them by adding nitrogen to a carbon-containing structure
Conditionally essential amino acids - nonessential amino acids that become essential if the body cannot make them, such as during bouts of illness
Denaturation - the unfolding of a protein's shape, which changes the structure and function of the protein (heat)
Heat disrupts the bonds btwn yolk and egg white
Salts and acids can also denature proteins
Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds to form proteins
When protein denatures due to acid that is not a situation where an amino acid becomes conditionally essential
Hydroxyl group is not part of an amino acid
6.2
Pepsin in stomach activates protein digestion.
Liver receives broken down amino acids and use them.
Amino acid pools - a limited supply of amino acids stored in your blood and cells and used to build new proteins.
Protein turnover - a continual process of degrading and synthesizing protein. When the daily amount of degraded protein is equivalent to the amount that is synthesized, you are in protein balance.
Proteins in intestines and liver account for around 50% of this turnover.
Urea - a nitrogen containing waste product that is excreted in urine
DNA directs the synthesis of proteins
Gene - a DNA segment that codes for a specific protein
RNA - a molecule that carries out the orders of DNA
DNA is the King, RNA is the steward
mRNA - a type of RNA that copies the genetic information encoded in DNA and carries it out of the nucleus of the cell to synthesize the protein
Transfer RNA - a type of RNA that collects the amino acids within the cell that are needed to make a specific protein
Sickle cell anemia - a blood disorder caused by a genetic defect in the development of hemoglobin. Sickle cell anemia causes the red blood cells to distort into a sickle shape and can damage organs and tissues.
PKU - caused by body's inability to properly degrade phenylalanine
Correct sequence of protein synthesis: mRNA, ribosome, tRNA, chain of amino acids, complete protein
The liver converts proteins to glucose
6.3
Collagen - a ropelike, fibrous protein that is the most abundant protein in your body
Connective tissues - the most abundant tissue type in the body. Made up primarily of collagen, it supports and connects body parts as well as providing protection and insulation. Bones, tendons, ligaments.
Red blood cells have a shelf life of 120 days
Protein is essential in healing
Enzymes - substances that speed up chemical reactions in your body
Catalysts - substances that aid and speed up reactions without being changed, damaged, or used up in the process
Coenzymes - substances needed by enzymes to perform many chemical reactions in your body. Many vitamins act as coenzymes.
Hormones - proteins that direct or signal an activity, often by turning on or shutting off enzymes. Act as messengers in the body to initiate or direct actions or processes
If blood glucose drops too low, pancreas releases glucagon, which promotes the release of glucose from the glycogen stored in your liver, which raises blood glucose.
Fluid balance - the equal distribution of water throughout your body and within and between cells
Edema - accumulation of excess fluid in the spaces surrounding the cells, which causes swelling of body tissue
Proteins can alter the pH of body fluids. Blood usually has a pH of 7.4, and fluid in cells 7.0. Changes in pH level can be fatal.
Proteins act as buffers
Buffers - substances that help maintain the proper pH in a solution by attracting or donating hydrogen ions
Transport proteins - proteins that carry lipids, oxygen, waste products, and vitamins through the blood to various organs and tissues, or that serve as channels to allow substances to pass through cell membranes.
Hemoglobin acts as a transport protein that carries oxygen to cells from the lungs. Hemoglobin also picks up carbon dioxide from cells for transport to your lungs.
Antibodies - 'soldier' proteins made by your body to bind to and neutralize foreign invaders, such as harmful bacteria, fungi, and viruses, as part of the body's immune response
Immunity - the state of having built up antibodies to a particular foreign substance so that when particles of the substance enter the body, they are destroyed by the antibodies.
Brain and nervous system need a minimum amount of glucose to function.
Protein helps increase satiety
Ghrelin stimulates brain to sense hunger
Protein: protein roles
Provide structural and mechanical support and maintenance
Build enzymes and hormones
Maintain fluid balance
Maintain acid-base balance
Transport substances
Provide antibodies for the immune response
Provide energy
Improve satiety
Transport of substances is not enzyme production. It's red blood cells and hemoglobin
6.4
Nitrogen balance - the state in which an individual is consuming the same amount of nitrogen in the diet as he or she is excreting in urine
16% of every dietary protein molecule is nitrogen, and nitrogen is retained by the body during protein synthesis.
Healthy - body that retains more nitrogen than it excretes (pregnant women, teenagers, babies)
Unhealthy - body excretes more nitrogen than is consumed
Protein quality - the measure of a protein's digestibility and how its amino acid pattern compares with your body's needs. Proteins that are more easily digested are higher quality.
Animal proteins are more digestible than plant proteins.
99% animal proteins are digestible, 87% plant proteins are digestible.
Amino acid profile - the types and amounts of amino acids in a protein.
Complete protein - one that has all 9 essential amino acids and 11 nonessential amino acids. Soy protein and animal protein are complete
Incomplete protein - a protein that is low in one or more of the essential amino acids - protein from plant sources tends to be incomplete
Exceptions: gelatin is incomplete, and quinoa and soy are complete
Limiting amino acid - the amino acid that is in the shortest supply in an incomplete protein.
Incomplete proteins are complemented by complete proteins, and it is upgraded to be a complete protein.
PDCAAS (protein digestibility corrected amino score) - measured as a percentage, takes into account both the amino acid profile and digestibility of a protein to give a good indication of its quality
Milk has a score of 100%
Chickpeas only have 52%
Wheat 43%.
Protein rec - 10-35% of total calories. Americans consume 16%
Protein quality is determined by the protein's digestibility and by the types and amounts of amino acids (essential versus nonessential) it contains. Protein from animal foods is more easily digested than protein from plant foods. A complete protein, which is typically found in animal foods and soy, provides a complete set of the essential amino acids along with some nonessential amino acids. Plant proteins are typically incomplete, as they are missing one or more of the essential amino acids. Plant proteins can be complemented with protein from other plant sources or animal food sources to improve their protein quality. Adults should consume 0.8 gram of protein for each kilogram of body weight. In the United States, men, on average, consume nearly 100 grams of protein daily, while women, on average, are consuming 73 grams
6.5
Americans eat 6.5% more protein than they did in 1970.
3 ounce - woman's palm or deck of cards, is ~21-25 grams of protein, or 7 grams per ounce.
Dried beans - kidney beans, pinto beans, black beans are excellent sources of protein.
Yogurt has the most protein of all dairy sources
More than half the protein in an egg is in the white.
6.6 - eating too much protein
Kidney stones - a diet high in animal proteins will increase risk for kidney stones
Osteoporosis - will also increase risk in poor bones density. Calcium taken from bone to act as a buffer
Cancer
Increases amount of heart-unhealthy saturated fat in diet.
Icee cream has the biggest protein to saturated fat ratio (oof)
Cheese and potatos are pretty heavy in sat fat too.
Fish, lean meats, and skinless poultry have the lowest sat fat ratio
Eating too little protein can lead to poor health and malnutrition.
PEM (protein-energy malnutrition) - a lack of sufficient dietary protein and/or calories.
Around 795 million ppl (1 in 9) around the world don't have access to enough food
Kwashiorkor - a state of PEM where there is a severe deficiency of dietary protein.
Edema in legs, feet, stomach
Muscles waste away as muscle proteins are broken down to generate the amino acids needed to synthesize other proteins.
Brittle hair and dry skin
Marasmus - severe deficiency of calories (starvation)
Edema in arms and legs, but also have a skin and bones appearance.
Protein plays an important role in maintaining fluid balance.
6.7
3.3% of americans consider themselves vegetarians
Protein-rich alternatives: soy, dried beans and legumes, nuts
Needs b12, calcium, and D
Iron carries oxygen to working muscles and zinc helps tissue recover
Isoflavones - naturally occurring phytoestrogens that function in similar fashion to the hormone estrogen in the human body
Estrogen - female sex characteristics
Eating soy may reduce risk of heart disease
Vegetarian diet reduces risk of
Heart disease
High blood pressure
Type 2 diabetes
Certain types of cancer
Obesity
Biggest vegan risk is not consuming enough B12 and protein
Need to monitor protein, iron, zinc, calcium, vitamin D, riboflavin (B), vitamin B12, vitamin A, and omega 3 fatty acids
Vegan's plate - fruits, veggies, grains, protein, calcium
Vitamin C enhances absorption of iron in plant foods
Absorption of zinc if enhanced by animal protein
B12 only naturally occurs in animal foods, so vegans need to look for fortified foods
Vitamin A can be switched with beta-carotene (carrots)
Omega 3 alpha-linoleic acid - found in soy products, walnuts, flaxseed, soybean oil, and canola oil
Refined grains are not good for us
Semi-vegetarian, lacto-ovo-vegetarians, and pescetarians eats dairy and eggs
It is more difficult to absorb the form of iron found in plants
Chapter Test:
Nitrogen is found in protein but not in carbs or lipids
9 amino acids are essential
11 are nonessential amino acids
HCl's function in the stomach is to denature protein. Amino acids are not converted to glucose in the stomach
Breakdown, storage, and excretion of proteins: The nitrogen in the amine group of amino acids is converted to urea and excreted via the kidneys
Nitrogen is contained in the amine group of the protein molecule
The acid group is the COOH part of an amino acid
Positive nitrogen balance: retaining more than excreting nitrogen
After amino acids are absorbed they either 1. Are used to make new proteins and non-protein products. 2. A limited supply of all amino acids remain in amino acid pools in your blood and inside cells. 3. Some are deaminated, with the nitrogen converted to urea and the carbon-containing remains used to make glucose or are stored as fat
Vegan diets may lack D, B12, iron and zinc
Genes contain info to direct the synthesis of new proteins
Proteins consist of a chian of some combination of 20 amino acids (9 + 11)
Proteins can be used to make glucose
Soy milk is a complete protein
Chapter 7
Vitamins are either fat soluble or water soluble.
A, D, E, and K are fat soluble. B vitamins and C are water soluble
Fat soluble are absorbed at beginning of small intestine and need to travel through lymph system before they enter the bloodstream. Chylomicrons are the little pockets they need to travel in.
Water soluble enter bloodstream directly. Absorbed in the upper portion of your small intestine. Typically not stored in body for long periods of time (B12 is an exception)
Antioxidants
Free radicals damage cell structure, cell proteins, and DNA. they steal electrons from other molecules to stabilize themselves.
Free radicals can result from exposure to chemicals in the environment (smoke)
If free radicals accumulate faster than your body can neutralize them (a condition known as oxidative stress), their effects can contribute to various health problems, including heart disease, cancer, arthritis, and Alzheimer's disease
Re
AMD causes blurry vision
Cataracts cause vision to become cloudy
Phytochemicals - non nutritive compounds in plant foods that may play a role in fighting chronic diseases.
Bioavailability - the degree to which a nutrient is absorbed from foods and used in the body
Don't expose produce to air. Destroys water-soluble vitamins and fat soluble vitamins A, E, and K
Provitamins - substances found in foods that can be converted into an active vitamin form once they are absorbed.
Preformed vitamins - found in active forms in foods
Correct sequence for lowered cancer and disease development:
Phytochemicals, antioxidants, reduced free radical damage
Vitamin A:
In retinoids family. Called preformed vit A bc they are in form ready to use
Retinol is the most usable of the three (retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid)
Preformed A is only found in animal foods (liver and eggs)
Plant foods don't contain vit A, but do contain provitamin A carotenoids (orange color), which can be converted to retinol in body
Beta, beta, and alpha carotene can be converted to vit A. these 3 make up 25-35% of the dietary vit A consumed by American adults
Essential for vision
Iodopsin needed for color vision
Rhodopsin needed for night vision
Cell differentiation - processes that determine what a cell becomes in your body
A prompts gene expression
Healthy skin, bone growth, immune system to create white blood cells
RAE and IU (international units) - how vit A amounts are measured
Adult females need 700mcg, males need 900 micrograms
Liver, milk, and eggs are the best sources
Carrots, spinach, sweet potatos
Upper level is 3000 mcg
More than 15,000 mcg leads to nausea, vomiting, headaches, dizziness, blurred vision
hypervitaminosis A - More than 30,000 leads to hypervitaminosis A, where liver accumulates toxic levels of vita A
Don't overdose while pregnant
Too much might lead to osteoporosis
Cartenodermia - orange skin from eating too many carrots
Deficiency can lead to night blindness and xerophthalmia (damage to cornea and dry eye)
Not involved in red blood cell formation
Vitamin E:
Most active form is a-tocopherol
Antioxidant (prevents oxidation of LDL to prevent plaque buildup)
Neutralizes free radicals
Is an anticoagulant
Adults need to consume 15 mg daily
Green leafy veggies, avocados, fortified cereals
Too much can lead to hemorrhage, so upper limit is 1000 mg. This only applies to ppl who eat enough vit K.
Too much can disrupt other antioxidants in body
Deficiency - ppl who can't absorb fat properly need more vit E
Vitamin K:
2 forms: menaquinone (synthesized by bacteria) and phylloquinone (found in green plants and primary source)
Essential for blood clotting. Without it, you would bleed uncontrollably
Aids enzyme that alters the bone protein osteocalcin. K enables it to bind with calcium
Women need 90mcg daily, men need 120 mcg
Too much:
No upper limit
Ppl taking warfarin as an anticoagulant need to keep a consistent intake of vitamin K
Deficiency:
Osteoporosis
Food sources:
Green Veggies (broccoli, spinach, salad greens, brussel sprouts, cabbage)
Vegetable oils and margarine
Vitamin D:
Made with UV light help. Light enters our skin and converts a cholesterol containing compound in skin to previtamin D (inactive form) travels to liver and released into blood
Calcium
Phosphorus, but inadequate levels of it would not affect vit D levels in body
Helps build bones
Deficiency:
Causes blood levels of calcium to drop
Vit D and parathyroid hormone cause calcium to leave bones to maintain the necessary levels in blood
Signals kidneys to decrease the amount of calcium excreted in urine.
Rickets (soft bones, bowed legs)
Osteomalacia - adult rickets
osteoporosis
Too much:
Loss of appetite, weight loss, irregular heart beat, increased urination.
Upper level is set as 100 mcg/ 4000 IU
Hypervitaminosis D - stored in fat cells but can reach toxic levels
Hypercalcemia - high calcium in blood
Food:
15 mcg/600 IU of D daily
Adults over 70 should add 20 mcg into daily consumption
Fortified milk
Fatty fish
Very few foods have D
D and K are both produced in the body
Vitamin C and Water-soluble B vitamins:
9 water soluble vitamins, 8 of them belong to the B complex (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, B12, pantothenic acid, and biotin). The last one is Vitamin C.
Dissolves in water, excess not stored in the body, and excreted in urine.
B vitamins are coenzymes. Substances needed by enzymes to perform many chemical reactions in body.
C plays important roles in immune system and bone health
Also an antioxidant
Thiamin: nerves
First B vit to be discovered
Polyneuritis - inflammation of peripheral nerves
Beriberi
Plays roles in transmission of nerve impulses and keeps nerves working and healthy
Need thiamin for metabolism of carbohydrates and amino acids
Breaks down alcohol in the body
Daily needs - 1.1 mg for women and 1.2 for men. Ppl typically eating more than they need
Food sources:
Enriched and whole-grain foods, such as bread and bread products, ready to eat cereals, pasta, rice, combined foods (sandwiches)
Pork (richest source)
Deficiency:
Beriberi - affects the cardiovascular and nervous systems and results in weakness in the body.
Wet beriberi affects cardiovascular system
Dry affects the nervous system.
Alcohol intereferes with thiamin absorption
Wernicke-korsakoff syndrome - brain disorder
Polyneuritis
Riboflavin:
Light sensitive
Body needs it to turn carbs, proteins and fats into energy and to keep cells healthy
Enhances niacin and B12
Need to consume over 1 mg. Males 1.3 mg and females 1.1 mg
Food sources:
Milk and yogurt
Enriched cereals and grains
Excess will be excreted in urine
Too much turns urine bright yellow
Too little causes glossitis (inflamed tongue), cracked and dry lips
Niacin:
Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide (active forms of niacin derived from foods)
Niacin needed to make energy in food
Needed to synthesize fat and cholesterol
Lowers LDL
Lowers level of fats and raises HDL
Rec level - 14 mg for women and 16 mg for men. Ppl exceed levels
Can be synthesized in the body from tryptophan. Daily niacin needs are measured in NE
Food sources:
Meat, fish, poultry, enriched whole-grain breads and bread products, fortified cereals.
Protein rich foods are good sources of typtophan and thus niacin.
Too much can cause flushing - reddish coloring of face, arms, chest.
Too much can cause nausea and vomiting, raise blood glucose levels, and toxic to liver.
Upper level was 35 mg to prevent flushing
Too little results in pellagra - inflamed skin
Dermatitis, dementia, and diarrhea. (also death)
Vitamin B6:
Pyridoxine - major form found in plant foods and used in supplements and fortified foods
Two other forms found in chicken and meat
B6 is an active coenzyme. More than 100 enzymes involved in the metabolism of proteins.
Helps body metabolize fats and carbs and break down glycogen, storage form of glucose
Needed to make hemoglobin and keep immune and nervous systems healthy
Daily needs - women 1.3-1.5 mg and men 1.3-1.7 mg daily
Food sources:
Cereals, meat, fish, poultry, veggies and fruits (spinach, red pepper, banana), nuts, peanut butter, other legumes (chickpeas)
Upper level is set at 100mg daily for adults.
B6 has been advertised to help PMS
Too much can result in nerve damage, losing control of body movements, and GI issues
Too little
Sore tongue
Skin inflammation
Depression
Anemia
Confusion
Don't drink alcohol for this, causes body to lose B6
Folate: PREGNANCY
Folic acid
Needed for DNA synthesis
Prevents birth defects
Healthy blood cells divide and increase
Very important during pregnancy
Deficiency
Neural tube defects
Anencephaly and spina bifida can occur
Disrupt cell's DNA, might develop cancer
- megaloblasts (large blood cells)
Macrocytes (diminished oxygen carrying capacity)
Macrocytic anemia causes a person to feel weak, tired, and irritable
Reduces some cancer risks
Daily needs - 400 mcg of folate daily
Pregnant women - 400-800mcg in form of supplements
Food sources:
FDA ordered folic acid be added to all enriched grains and cereals
Enriched pasta, rice, breads and cereals, legumes, leafy green veggies, broccoli, asparagus, orange juice
Too much
Harmful for ppl who are deficient in vit B12 bc it can cause anemia and nerve damage
Upper level of 1000mcg
Vitamin B12:
The only water soluble vitamin that can be stored in the body (liver)
B12 needs intrinsic factor ( a protein secreted by the stomach) to be absorbed.
Vital for healthy nerves and red blood cells
Body needs it to use certain fatty acids and amino acids to make DNA in cells
Needed to protect nerve cells
Daily needs - 2.4 mcg daily. On avg. consume 4 mcg though
Ability to absorb diminishes with age
Food sources:
Animal sources (meat, fish, poultry, dairy)
Fortified soy milk and ready to eat cereals
Deficiency:
Pernicious anemia (ppl who can't produce intrinsic factor)
Macrocytic anemia the same type of anemia caused by folate deficiency
Vit B12 might be low in strict vegetarians that avoid all foods from animal sources
Vitamin C:
Cannot be synthesized by ourselves, but animals can
Known as ascorbic acid (acts as an coenzyme that is needed to synthesize and use certain amino acids)
Needed to make collagen
Acts as an antioxidant
Helps absorb IRON in plant foods
Boosts immune system by enabling body to make white blood cells
Daily needs - women 75 mg and men 90 mg daily
Smokers need to consume 35 mg more bc smoking speeds up the elimination of C from the body
Food sources: fruits and veggies
Red pepper
orange/grapefruit
Tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, broccoli, oranges, cantaloupe
Upper level is 2000mg
Ppl with hemochromatosis (causes body to store too much iron) should avoid excessive amounts of vitamin C.
Scurvy deficiency - swollen and bleeding gums, rash on skin, wounds that wont heal.
C and E act as antioxidants
Pantothenic Acid and Biotin:
Both B vitamins
Aid in metabolism of nutrients that provide you with energy: carbs, proteins and fats
Biotin is produced by bacteria in the intestine
Daily needs - 5 mg of pant and 30 mcg of biotin
Food:
Whole grains and whole-grain cereals, nuts and legumes, broccoli, peanut butter, meat, milk, eggs
Deficiency is so rare
Burning feet
Hair loss, skin rash, depression, lethargy
Deficiency can occur if you eat too many egg whites
Choline - needed for healthy cells and nerves and transportation of lipids. Body can synthesize it but it's not enough
In milk, liver, eggs, wheat, but americans seem to be falling short
Pregnant women need more choline than any other women
Excess can cause sweating, vomiting, fishy odour and hypotension (low blood pressure)
Carnitine (carnus = flesh) is needed to properly utilize fat. It is abundant in foods from animal sources, such as meat and dairy products. Although there is no research to support the claim, carnitine supplements are sometimes promoted to help athletes improve their performance.97
Similar to many B vitamins, lipoic acid helps your cells generate energy, and it was in fact initially thought to be a vitamin. Lipoic acid is also being studied for its potential role in obesity.
Lastly, inositol is needed to keep cell membranes healthy. Inositol can be found in foods from plant sources
7.17
USP sets purity and quality standards for dietary supplements
7.2
Fat soluble vitamins are stored in the body and used as needed when dietary intake falls short
Liver is main storage deposit for vit A and K and E, whereas D is stored in fat and muscle tissues. They are not stored in blood. Bc they are stored in the body, A and D can build up to a point of toxicity.
Don't expose produce to air
Dont soak the veggies
Reduce cooking time
Keep food cool
Chapter Test:
Correct sequence for lowered cancer and disease development: Phytochemicals, antioxidants, reduced free radical damage
can accumulate to a point of toxicity if intake is excessive
Phytochemicals are naturally occurring plant compounds that give fruits and veggies their vibrant colors, function as antioxidants to stop free radicals from damaging cells, may help reduce the risk of chronic diseases
Do not soak fruits and veggies.
Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant
Vit K is essential for blood to clot
Vit D - dietary intake and sun exposure
Beriberi is caused by thiamin deficiency
B-complex vitamins act as coenzymes
Folate is vital for DNA synthesis and cell division
Pyridoxine acts as a coenzyme for more than 100 enzymes
B12 deficiency can cause macrocytic anemia
Milk is not a good source of vit C
Vit C is involved in collagen formation, enhanced iron absorption, and is an antioxidant
B12 is found naturally in eggs and beef
Dietary supplements do not require FDA approval before they can be marketed to the public.
Dietary supplements are regulated less stringently by the FDA than are drugs
Fortified soy milk is a good source of Vit D
Vit E: olive oil and vinegar, chopped nuts, avocado slices
Vitamin E and beta-carotene are antioxidants
Older ppl have a harder time absorbing B12
Folic acid reduces risk of neural tube defects
USP seal signifies that the supplement has been tested and is free of contaminants, manufactured using safe and sanitary procedures, and contains the amount of the substance that is stated on the label. (performance, strength, quality, consistency, and purity).