Trigger, B. G. (1989). A history of archaeological thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 27–109
World prehistory is in essence a subject of European and North American origins
It has spread to various regions in part with colonialism
The development of archaeology as a discipline is directly related to the evolution of science and ideas in the western world and to the importance of religion in western societies
During the antiquity period (700 BC-476 AD), royal figures collected « antiques », as for instance did Nabonidus, the last king of Babylon
His daughter, Belshalti-Nanner, had a special house for her collection of local antiquities
Archaeology truly emerged as a discipline at the end of the 18th century, yet it was only practiced by educated amateurs.
Focus was on curiosities and beautiful objects
Stone tools were not recognized as such until the end of the 16th century.
Before that, they were thought to be the product of thunderbolts (cerauniae)
By analogy with modern foragers, the products were shown to be human implements
« Cabinet des curiosités »
The Louvres Museum was established as a personal « museum » in 1500's, but consecrated in 1793 after the French revolution
At the end of the 18th century, a new movement emerged : Neoclassicism
This movement drew heavily on classical Greece and Rome for inspiration
Became an ideal, a cannon that must be espoused
Closely associated with the emergence of classical archaeology
Systematic « excavations »
Niniveh: Botta, Layard
Who lived here before the Romans?
Where do the Celts come from?
Strange animals are being unearthed; are they older than the great flood (diluvium)?
Tries to explain the world as a rational plan made by god
Concept of harmony
Earth's history is described accurately in the bible
Was the earth really created in 6 days? Most viewed this statement as a metaphor
In the 17th century, the concept of stratigraphy was progressively established.
Nicholas Steno (1638-1686), a Dane working in Italy, argued that sediments preserve a chronological record of earth's history.
Steno's laws
1) Law of Original Horizontality: Deposition is horizontal
2) Law of Superposition: the oldest layer lies at the bottom
3) Law of Lateral Continuity: Horizontal strata extend laterally until they thin to zero thickness
4) Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships: An event that cuts across existing rock is younger than the disturbed rock
In the 18th and 19th century, it became progressively clear that different geological strata are associated with different fossils.
Earth specialists such as miners, engineers, surveyors became convinced that the fossils and the sediments were deposited over long periods of time.
Fossils have been extremely important in the development of Paleolithic research.
Fossils that are abundant and characteristic of particular periods are called index fossils.
The problem was how can we account for changes in fossil assemblages?
Based on the bible, people argued that the geological record is a testimony of a succession of dramatic changes that changed the face of the earth.
This view is called: catastrophism.
This view was championed by George Cuvier, the best paleontologist of his time.
He argued that species were fixed and that no species intergrades into another one.
Cuvier argued that many extinctions occurred.
Humans are recent and have not changed. All postdate the deluge.
This view quickly came under fire.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, argued for the transformation of species. Then called transformism, this approach will later become known as evolutionism.
Lamarck's arguments were weakened by the fact that they were based on "vitalism," the idea that species have an inner force leading them to change.
However, the idea that species changed slowly over time made its way.
Charles Lyell, an English geologist, did not agree with Cuvier's catastrophism
Yet, he was highly skeptical of Lamarck's ideas.
Lyell argued for a long existence of the earth.
Principles of Geology (1830-1833)
According to Lyell, natural processes operating in the past are the same as those that can be observed operating in the present.
This principle is now being referred to as: Uniformitarianism.
The Three-Age System
Goal: classify museum collections
Iron age
Bronze age
Stone age
Thomsen and Worsaae lived in Scandinavia. This region was covered by an ice sheet during the last glaciation. The human occupations there are recent.
The rest of Europe was largely ice-free. This means that this region could be occupied during the Paleolithic by extinct species of humans.
How old are humans?
Were they contemporary with extinct species?
Did humans change over time?
1847. Publication of « Antiquités Celtiques et Antédiluviennes»
New edition in 1857.
Argued for the coexistence of humans and extinct fauna at Abbeville in France.
Important visit in 1858: Hugh Falconer.
Falconer became convinced that the association is real.
A geological commission was launched. Many of the best English geologists came to Abbeville to examine the remains. Most were convinced.
1859 also coincides with the publication of "On the Origins of Species" by Darwin.
This was a true scientific revolution, as his theory removed god from the picture.
Evolution was slow and gradual.
Led to a search for early humans
Edouard Lartet
A French paleontologist
Showed the presence of stone tool marks on the bones from Abbeville
Made an important discovery in 1864 in SW France
Paul Broca
Important work on the brain and language (Broca's area)
Founded the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris in 1859.
What is Archaeology?
-The study of human past from material remains;
-Material remains: artifacts, ecofacts, features, sites ….
-A multi-disciplinary approach
-Artifacts and ecofacts must be interpreted (e.g., age of an object, type of raw material, provenience)
-Disciplines involved: physics, biology, geology, ecology, ethnology, etc.
-The context in which these objects are found is of great importance.
-Classical archaeology: History and fine arts, focus on the antiquity period, particularly the Greeks and the Romans
-Anthropological archaeology: Focus on local origins, prehistoric and non-Western societies
-Uses texts and languages extensively. Often, compares the reality with « official » texts. A complement to historical methods for investigating the past.
-For instance, will provide information on poorly described social classes (e.g., peasants) or ethnic groups (e.g., Thracians).
-Focus on state societies.
-Period: 3000 BC - 500 AD
-Geographical scope: Essentially, the Mediterranean region
-Historical Archaeology
-Underwater Archaeology
-Biblical Archaeology
-Colonial Archaeology
-Classical archaeology
-Anthropological archaeology: Focus on local origins and prehistoric and non-Western societies
- Prehistoric archaeology
-Mostly based on artifacts. By definition, texts are unavailable or very limited;
-Reliance on analogies and uniformitarianism;
-Importance of experiments and « archaeological » studies conducted among living groups
-A four-field approach. Use ethnography, ethnolinguistics, and biological anthropology as complementary sources of information
-Type of societies: from hunters-gatherers to states
-All continents
-Date: 3.5 MYA until the present
-The focus is put on explanation at a general level
-Its goals are to:
-Describe past lifeways
-Establish the chronology of cultural patterns
-Explain how and why culture changed through time