Study Guide
Declaration of Independence
In the summer of 1776 the Continental Congress reconvened to begin drafting the Declaration of Independence, a document that, while not legally binding at the time, expressed powerful ideals. It outlined the need to dissolve political ties between the American colonies and Great Britain, arguing that all men are created equal and are endowed with certain natural, unalienable rights, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The Declaration asserted that governments exist to secure these rights, and when a government fails to do so or works against these principles, the people have the right to alter or abolish it.
The document goes on to detail a long list of grievances and abuses by the British Crown, justifying the colonies' decision to seek independence. These grievances included violations of their rights, oppressive laws, forcing the colonists to quarter and supply soldiers, and unchecked power, which the colonists saw as proof that the British government no longer served their interests. Originally there was a paragraph put in by Jefferson talking about the injustice of slavery and the unnatural state of bondage it represented, he was forced to take it out by representatives from Georgia and other powerful slave states.
The drafting and adoption of the Declaration marked the beginning of a shift in national sentiment. Rather than identifying as British subjects living in colonies, people began to embrace a new identity as Americans. This was the early foundation of a national consciousness that would later shape the United States as an independent nation.
The Constitution
The Constitution begins with the Preamble, which outlines the purpose of the document. It declares that the Constitution's goal is to:
Form a more perfect union
Establish justice
Ensure domestic tranquility
Provide for the common defense
Promote the general welfare
Secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity
These principles reflect the framers' intention to create a stronger, more unified government that could address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and protect the rights and well-being of the American people.
The Constitution divides the power of the country among three branches of government: the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches. This system of checks and balances was designed to prevent any one branch from gaining too much power.
Jefferson vs. Hamilton's vision for the new republic
Federalists: The Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams, favored a strong national government and a loose interpretation of the Constitution. They also advocated for policies that supported commerce, a centralized banking system, and closer relations with Britain. The Federalists were dominant in the early years of the Republic but eventually declined as the Jeffersonian Republicans rose to power.
Jeffersonian Republicans (or Democratic-Republicans): This party, founded by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in opposition to the Federalists, was originally called the Republican Party. However, they are often referred to by historians as Jeffersonian Republicans or Democratic-Republicans to distinguish them from the later Republican Party of the mid-19th century. They advocated for a limited federal government, states' rights, and an agrarian-based economy, with stronger ties to France rather than Britain.
The Bill of Rights and rationale behind it
The Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791, comprises the first ten amendments to the Constitution. These amendments were added to protect individual freedoms and limit government power. Key rights include freedom of speech, religion, and the press, as well as protections against unreasonable search and seizure, and the right to a fair trial. The inclusion of the Bill of Rights was essential in gaining the support of Anti-Federalists who feared a strong central government.
Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak (Black Hawk)
A prominent Native American leader of the Sauk tribe. He is best known for his leadership during the Black Hawk War of 1832, a conflict between the Sauk and Fox tribes and the United States. Black Hawk opposed the forced relocation of his people from their ancestral lands in Illinois and Wisconsin and led a group of warriors in an attempt to return to their homeland. Despite initial successes, the war ended in defeat for Black Hawk, and he was captured, later being paraded in a tour to showcase his surrender. His resistance and the war were significant moments in the broader struggle of Native American tribes against U.S. expansion.
Lowell Mills
The Lowell System: Developed in the 1820s in Lowell, Massachusetts, this factory system employed young women, known as "Lowell girls," who lived in company housing and worked in textile mills. The system aimed to provide a better working and living environment compared to traditional labor conditions, promoting a sense of community among workers.
Second Great Awakening - key ideas
By the 19th century, Christianity had evolved significantly. The Second Great Awakening introduced a more optimistic view of God, heaven, and human agency. This is a major shift from earlier Christian doctrines, where God was seen as harsh and salvation was beyond human control. Now, people believed in free will, and good works were seen as a path to salvation.
The Declaration of Sentiments
At the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, over 100 attendees gathered to address women's rights, with the Declaration of Sentiments emerging as the central document. Modeled after the Declaration of Independence, the Declaration of Sentiments boldly asserted that men and women are created equal and demanded an end to the legal and social injustices faced by women. It called for a range of rights, including the right to vote, access to education, and equal treatment in marriage and property laws. This powerful document marked a pivotal moment in the women's rights movement, setting the foundation for future advocacy.
Reshaping of everyday life - key changes
Tobacco use was a widespread habit in early 19th-century America, heavily integrated into daily life and social customs. It was primarily consumed by men, though some women also partook, making it a common feature in social settings. The habit reflected broader shifts in consumer culture, as Americans increasingly indulged in tobacco alongside tea, coffee, and sugar, items that became household staples. These changing consumption patterns not only shaped personal identities but also contributed to a unique American character and social cohesion rooted in shared routines and comforts.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a key figure in the women's rights movement and lived in Upstate New York. Her husband was anti-slavery, which connected her to abolitionist circles.
Susan B. Anthony
Susan B. Anthony was a leading figure in the women's suffrage movement and a tireless advocate for women's rights throughout the 19th century. Along with her close ally, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, she campaigned for the right to vote, believing that women's participation in politics was crucial for achieving social and legal equality. Anthony's efforts were not limited to suffrage; she also fought for women's access to education, property rights, and fair treatment in marriage. Notably, she was inspired by the political landscape in Utah, where women had been granted the right to vote in 1870. Anthony and Stanton visited Salt Lake City to observe this progressive development and to learn from the Latter-day Saints community's approach to women's rights, using it as a platform for their own suffrage campaign across the nation.
Lucretia Mott
Lucretia Mott, a leader in the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, refused to buy products made by slave labor, such as sugar, as part of her commitment to abolition.
Female coverture status
Married women's property and earnings were controlled by their husbands, a legal framework known as coverture, which prevented women from having independent legal status.
Gender ideals of the 19th century
As a result, a shift in gender ideals emerged during this period. While women still lacked legal and economic independence, their moral status improved, and they began to be seen as the moral compass of society, especially in religious contexts.
This new view, which saw women as more virtuous than men, contrasted with earlier beliefs that men were the more moral gender.
Elizabeth Freeman (Mum Bett)
Elizabeth Freeman, known as Mum Bett, was an enslaved woman who sued for her freedom in 1781. Her successful case in Massachusetts helped to set a precedent for the abolition of slavery in the state.
Phillis Wheatley
Phillis Wheatley was the first African American woman to publish a book of poetry in 1773. Enslaved in Boston, her work gained international acclaim and challenged contemporary views on race and intellect.
Frederick Douglass
A prominent Black abolitionist, writer, and orator who escaped slavery and dedicated his life to the fight for freedom and equality. Known for his powerful speeches and autobiographies, he used his personal experiences to expose the horrors of slavery and advocate for its abolition. Douglass also supported women's rights and was a key figure in the 19th-century social reform movements, inspiring generations with his calls for justice and human rights.
William Lloyd Garrison
A leading white abolitionist, journalist, and social reformer known for his uncompromising stance against slavery. In 1831, he founded The Liberator, an abolitionist newspaper that called for immediate emancipation and equality for enslaved people, setting him apart from more gradualist approaches. Garrison's radical ideas and influential writings made him both a prominent figure and a polarizing one, as he tirelessly advocated for justice, often facing hostility for his views.
Abraham Lincoln
Abraham Lincoln was the 16th president of the United States, serving from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. He is best known for leading the nation through the Civil War, preserving the Union, and issuing the Emancipation Proclamation, which began the process of freeing enslaved people in Confederate-held territories. Lincoln's leadership and commitment to ending slavery, along with his promotion of national reconciliation, made him one of the most revered figures in American history.
Stephen Douglas
A U.S. senator from Illinois and a prominent politician in the mid-19th century, best known for his debates with Abraham Lincoln during the 1858 Illinois Senate race. He championed the doctrine of popular sovereignty, which held that the settlers of a territory should decide for themselves whether to permit slavery, a position that contributed to the tensions leading up to the Civil War. Douglas played a key role in the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which repealed the Missouri Compromise and intensified national divisions over slavery.
Utopian groups of the 19th century: Shakers, Oneida, Latter-day Saints
In the 19th century, several utopian groups emerged in America, each with distinct beliefs and social structures. The Shakers, founded by Mother Ann Lee, were known for their communal living, celibacy, and distinctive craftsmanship, emphasizing equality between men and women and a life of simplicity and celibacy. The Oneida Community, led by John Humphrey Noyes, practiced communal ownership of property and complex marriage, where members were encouraged to share spouses as part of their belief in creating a perfect society. The Latter-day Saints, or Mormons, founded by Joseph Smith, believed in the restoration of true Christianity and established a tightly-knit, hierarchical community centered around religious devotion and the pursuit of a "promised land," ultimately settling in Utah. Each of these groups sought to create ideal societies based on their religious or philosophical principles, reflecting the period's broader experimentation with social and religious ideals.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in 1848, ended the Mexican-American War and significantly altered the map of North America. Under the terms of the treaty, Mexico ceded vast territories to the United States, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado, Wyoming, and Texas. In exchange, the U.S. paid Mexico $15 million and assumed responsibility for certain claims by American citizens against Mexico. The treaty also promised protection for the rights of Mexicans living in the newly acquired territories, though these provisions were often not fully honored.
Missouri Compromise (1820)
1820 - Missouri Compromise: As people settled further west, Missouri became a state, and Congress tried to maintain balance. They allowed Missouri as a slave state but added Maine as a free state, keeping numbers even in Congress. The Missouri Compromise Line (36°30') was established: new states north of this line would be free, while those south could permit slavery.
Compromise of 1850
1850 - California and the Compromise of 1850: With the addition of new territories like California after the Mexican-American War, Congress debated again. California entered as a free state, and the Fugitive Slave Act was enacted to appease the South by enforcing the return of escaped enslaved people.
Kansas-Nebraska Act
1854 - Kansas-Nebraska Act and Popular Sovereignty: To gain support for a transcontinental railroad, Senator Stephen Douglas advocated for popular sovereignty, allowing Kansas and Nebraska residents to vote on slavery. This repealed the Missouri Compromise Line, causing tensions and leading to violent clashes like "Bleeding Kansas" as pro- and anti-slavery settlers rushed in to sway the vote.
John Brown
In 1859, John Brown, a staunch abolitionist, attempted to incite an armed uprising by seizing weapons from the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. His goal was to arm enslaved people in the area, sparking a rebellion against slaveholders.
Dred Scott
Dred Scott's Life and Movement: Born into slavery, Dred Scott had lived in free territories, including parts of Iowa and Minnesota, where slavery was prohibited by Congress. The central question became: what happens when an enslaved person is taken to a free territory?
The supreme court ruled that Scott, as an African American, did not have the right to sue in federal court because the Constitution, the Court argued, was intended only for white citizens. This decision was a severe setback for abolitionists and heightened tensions between pro- and anti-slavery factions.
Charles Sumner
Charles Sumner's Anti-Slavery Speech:
Senator Charles Sumner gave an impassioned speech to Congress against slavery, comparing pro-slavery advocates to the character Don Quixote. Sumner saw them as deluded, unable to see the harm in front of them, much like Cervantes' misguided knight. In his speech, Sumner particularly criticized Senator Andrew Butler from South Carolina, depicting him as an advocate for a morally corrupt institution.
Violent Response from Preston Brooks:
Attack on Sumner: Butler's nephew, Representative Preston Brooks, took great offense at Sumner's words. In response, Brooks confronted Sumner on the Senate floor and attacked him with a cane, beating him severely.
Secession
Regional Split and Fear in the South:
The 1860 election showed an unprecedented regional split, with Abraham Lincoln winning almost exclusively in the Northern states and none in the South.
Many Southerners, influenced by Lincoln's association with abolitionism, believed his presidency would threaten slavery.
Although Lincoln did not campaign on immediate abolition, his election caused widespread anxiety among pro-slavery advocates.
Election of 1860
Tensions over slavery reached new heights by the 1860 election.
The Free Soil Party had previously opposed the expansion of slavery into new territories, setting the stage for a rising anti-slavery sentiment.
Several distinct parties and factions emerged, reflecting the deep divide over slavery and other issues.
Key Candidates and Parties:
Abraham Lincoln (Republican Party):
The Republican platform opposed the spread of slavery into the new territories.
Lincoln's platform focused on halting slavery's expansion rather than immediate abolition.
Stephen Douglas (Northern Democrat):
Known for advocating "popular sovereignty," which would allow each territory to decide on slavery.
Douglas represented Northern Democrats, who had a more moderate stance on slavery.
John C. Breckenridge (Southern Democrat):
Representing Southern Democrats, Breckenridge supported the protection and expansion of slavery.
His candidacy highlighted the South's desire for a firmer pro-slavery stance.
John Bell (Constitutional Union Party):
The Constitutional Union Party sought to downplay the slavery issue, emphasizing the preservation of the Union and the Constitution.
Election Outcome:
Abraham Lincoln won the election with about 40% of the popular vote but a decisive majority in the electoral college.
Regional Support:
Lincoln's support was concentrated in the North.
Breckenridge carried the Southern states Bell, with his Constitutional Union Party, won some border states
Douglas had limited success, only winning Missouri and part of New Jersey.
First Amendment
The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution protects several fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition. It guarantees individuals the right to express their opinions, practice any religion or none, and engage in peaceful protest, ensuring a core aspect of democratic life in the United States.
Second Amendment
The Second Amendment protects the right of individuals to keep and bear arms. This provision has been a source of significant debate, particularly regarding the extent of gun ownership rights and the regulation of firearms in modern society.
Fourth Amendment
The Fourth Amendment protects citizens from unreasonable searches and seizures by the government. It requires law enforcement to obtain a warrant, supported by probable cause, before searching an individual's property or seizing their belongings, safeguarding personal privacy and limiting government power.
Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation, issued by President Abraham Lincoln, declared all enslaved people in Confederate states "in rebellion against the United States" to be free.
Importantly, it applied only to Confederate-held areas, meaning states and territories still under Union control or loyal to the Union (like border states) were not affected. So, slavery continued in those regions until later actions, including the 13th Amendment.
This was partly a military strategy to weaken the Confederate workforce and economy by incentivizing enslaved individuals to leave and join the Union cause.
Reconstruction
Transition of Power
Following Lincoln's assassination, Andrew Johnson became president in 1865, shortly after the 13th Amendment was passed.
Johnson's approach to Reconstruction was lenient toward the South, prioritizing swift reintegration over protections for freed slaves.
Reconstruction Process Under Johnson
Allowed Southern states to rejoin the Union with full voting rights if only 10% of their population pledged loyalty to the U.S.
Johnson's leniency permitted Southern states to pass restrictive "Black Codes," curtailing African American freedoms and undermining Reconstruction efforts.
This approach led to tension with Congress, which eventually intervened by passing the 14th and 15th Amendments to secure civil rights for formerly enslaved people.
13th Amendment (1865)
Abolished slavery nationwide, including in border states and all Union territories.
Removed the legal basis for slavery in every part of the United States, unlike the limited reach of the Emancipation Proclamation.
14th Amendment (1868)
Key Provision: "All persons born or naturalized in the United States...are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside."
Granted citizenship to all individuals born or naturalized in the U.S., including formerly enslaved people.
Equal Protection Clause: Required states to provide equal protection under the law, protecting individuals from discrimination.
15th Amendment (1870)
Prohibited states from denying citizens the right to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude."
Primarily aimed at securing voting rights for Black men, expanding political participation in the South.